Iml 

hrM 

Mm 

(|^VV5.ti^C 

if/  \\t 

1^ 

i] 

ll 

lii 

j5pr 


If 


y 


p*-"  \j  p'-' 


A.r^' 


V 


N^" 


/: 


■fe 


./•■ 


ALASKAN  TROPHIES 
The  frontispiece  attractively  displays  a  Polar 
bear  skin  crossed  by  baleen,  with  skull  of  walrus 
in  the  center  and  string  of  ermine  skins  at  the 
top.  Skins  at  top  from  left  to  right  are:  otter, 
silver  fox,  blue  fox  and  lynx.  Lower  line :  mink, 
white  and  red  foxes  and  marten. 


^lasifean  Wvop^iti 


THE  FUR  TRADE 
OF  AMERICA 

AND   SOME   OF   THE   MEN   WHO   MADE 
AND    MAINTAIN    IT 


TOGETHER  WITH 

FURS    AND    FUR    BEARERS 

OF 

OTHER  CONTINENTS  AND  COUNTRIES 

AND 

ISLANDS    OF   THE   SEA 


BY 

A.   L.   BELDEN 


Published  by 

THE   PELTRIES   PUBLISHING   COMPANY,   Ikc 

NEW  YORK 


i$ 


Copyright  1917 

BY   THE   PELTRIES   PUBLISHING  CO.,   Inc. 

All  Rights  Reserved 


GENESIS 

When  the  world  was  yet  young,  and  men  were 
born  and  spent  their  days  in  the  glorious  freedom  of 
out  of  doors,  the  "first  families"  definitely  apprehended 
the  utility  of  furry  pelts  as  the  chief  components  of  pro- 
tective apparel  throughout  the  changing  seasons  of  the 
year,  and  progressively  in  all  the  years. 

It  is  not  strange,  therefore,  that  when  the  earliest 
over-sea  wanderers,  earliest  of  dependable  record, 
settled  upon  the  wooded  shores  of  the  American  con- 
tinent they  devoted  their  interest  and  labor,  first,  to  the 
cultivation  of  the  soil  for  bread;  and,  second,  to  fur 

6 


M199230 


6  GENESIS 

trading,  at  which  they  were  adepts,  for  prodigious 
profits. 

It  is  interesting  to  learn  that  the  fur  industry  in 
America  is  definitely  linked  to  the  fur  trade  of  antiquity, 
and  withal  extremely  gratifying  to  note  the  wonderful 
progress  attained  in  every  detail  of  the  business — the 
output  of  the  skilled  furrier  of  to-day  is  essentially  un- 
like "a  fur"  of  the  first  centuries  in  every  particular 
except  the  initial  stage — the  raw  skin. 

The  inspired  historian  of  first  things,  events  follow- 
ing the  renewal  of  the  earth  in  anticipation  of  the  advent 
of  man,  assures  us  that  very  near  the  '"beginning"  fur 
formed  an  essential,  effective  and  important  part  of  the 
apparel  of  the  human  race ;  and  this  record  has  remained 
uncontradicted  by  the  critical  or  the  curious  during  the 
six  thousand  years,  more  or  less,  this  little  planet  has 
been  running  its  ordered  course  around  the  sun. 

It  may  seem  to  be  an  insignificant  matter  to  engage 
the  pen  of  an  inspired  writer,  but  it  should  be  noted  that 
it  first  measurably  charged  the  mind  of  the  Creator, 
hands  as  well  as  mind,  by  whom  all  things,  from  least 
to  greatest,  were  created  for  the  possession  and  peace 
of  the  one  creature  made  in  His  own  image. 

When  Adam  and  Eve,  in  consequence  of  disobedi- 
ence to  the  single  divine  law  imposed  for  their  well- 
being,  were  driven  from  the  Garden  of  Eden  they 
passed  from  ease  and  abundance  to  toil  and  want;  and 
as  misfortune  broods  not  singly,  they  also  lost  their 
former  ethical  repose  of  mind,  and  becoming  conscious 
that  they  were  in  undress,  "sewed  fig  leaves  together 
,and  made  themselves  aprons" — not  very  extensive,  fast- 
color  or  durable  raiment,  but  manifestly  the  utmost 


GENESIS  7 

attainable  by  the  ingenuity  of  two  perturbed  souls  in 
the  limitation  of  a  single  thought ;  and  we  may  reason- 
ably suppose  that  this  primal  one-piece  suit,  patched  and 
renewed  from  day  to  day,  the  best  they  knew,  would 
have  sufficed  from  genial  spring  till  nipping  frosts  of 
winter  drove  the  wearers  a-hiding  in  some  subteranean 
cavern  to  perish  of  cold  and  hunger,  except  for  the  com- 
passion of  Him  "whose  mercy  is  over  all  His  works,'* 
for  the  sacred  record  reads :  "Unto  Adam  also  and  to  his 
wife  did  the  Lord  God  make  coats  of  skins,  and  clothed 
them." 

We  may  assume  that  omniscience  devised  this  initial 
attire  of  the  first  human  inhabitants  "of  all  the  earth" 
solely  with  regard  to  their  imposed  necessities,  and  with- 
out even  mildly  exciting  that  love  of  dress  which  in  suc- 
ceeding centuries,  surely  ever  since  men  and  women 
became  dressmakers  and  milliners,  has  led  to  an  ever 
increasing  desire  to  revel  in  luxurious  attire,  and  rival 
in  glittering  array  one  another,  the  butterflies  and  birds 
of  the  air,  the  flowers  of  the  field,  and  all  creation  in 
vacuous  indifference  to  comfort,  true  dignity,  and  even 
life  itself,  which  is  incomparably  "more  than  raiment." 

Fur,  though  not  so  superbly  wrought  and  finished 
as  our  modern  highly  skilled  furriers  present  it  in 
fashion's  latest  fancies,  is  the  material  in  which  man 
was  first  fully  clothed,  apparel  created,  not  designed, 
made  to  relieve  needs  springing  from  disobedience 
and  discontent ;  the  "coats  of  skins"  thus  graciously  pro- 
vided as  the  initial  garments  of  man  and  woman  about 
to  tread  the  trying  mazes  of  a  new  life,  were  doubtless 
simply  protective  and  decidedly  simple,  and  yet  posi- 
tively pleasing  to  the  wearers,  as  Mother  Eve  thus  at- 


8  GENESIS 

tired  could  at  any  time  stroll  abroad  either  alone  or  in 
the  company  of  Adam  without  experiencing  the  distress 
incident  to  noting  the  style  and  fit  of  other  "coats 
of  skins,"  possibly  surpassing  hers,  on  the  primal 
promenade. 

Fur  is  the  natural  and  actual  clothing  of  nearly  all 
mammals  inhabiting  land  or  water,  or  land  and  water, 
fields,  woods,  running  streams,  placid  lakes,  marshes 
and  the  great  oceans  from  the  earliest  historic  time  to 
the  present  moment,  and  the  quality  of  this  furry  coat 
was  unquestionably  intended  to  insure  to  each  creature, 
large  or  small,  a  maximum  degree  of  health  and  well- 
being  under  all  conditions  of  environment,  variations  in 
temperature,  and  changing  circumstances  more  or  less 
adversely  affecting  them  in  their  intensive  struggle  for 
existence  in  competition  with  one  another,  the  elements 
and  man. 

Not  a  few  species  have  entirely  disappeared,  some 
have  become  reduced  to  an  insignificant  total,  and  others 
barely  linger  upon  the  verge  of  extinction,  but  the 
variety  remaining  is  large,  and  the  aggregate  number 
of  individuals  surviving  disease,  restricted  habitat  and 
consequent  diminution  of  food,  and  the  sleepless  pursuit 
of  alert  enemies  is  incredible,  and  would  be  rejected  as 
unworthy  of  belief  except  for  the  positive  proof  fur- 
nished by  the  actual  count  of  the  annual  catch. 

If  man  had  been  endowed  with  all  the  cunning  in 
creation,  and  the  "brutes  that  perish"  had  from  the  first 
been  altogether  stupid,  human  greed  would  long  since 
have  effected  the  extermination  of  the  fur-bearers  every- 
where except  in  the  regions  of  eternal  frost;  but  the 
furry  people  of  marsh,  valley  and  forest,  deep  and 


GENESIS  » 

shallow  waters,  are  cute,  crafty  and  even  more  cautious 
than  man ;  they  have  only  two  books,  Necessity  and  Ex- 
perience, and  on  the  title  page  of  each  is  plainly  written 
the  "first  law  of  nature,"  and  they  are  ever  mindful 
of  that  one  statute ;  but  their  escape  from  countless  foes 
is  chiefly  if  not  wholly  due  to  their  nocturnal  habits; 
during  the  daylight  hours  while  man,  birds  of  prey  and 
scaly  serpents  incessantly  roam  abroad  seeking  whom 
they  may  devour,  the  fur-bearers  peacefully  repose  in 
dens,  hollow  trees,  penetrable  openings  in  river  banks 
and  similar  retreats  offering  "safety  first";  at  night- 
fall, when  their  only  fearsome  enemies  are  the  creatures 
with  owlish  eyes,  the  furry  folk  prowl  about  in  quest  of 
food,  but  wisely  return  to  their  dens  before  sunrise. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  in  the  course  of  the  passing 
ages  the  natural  covering  and  sundry  parts  of  nearly 
all  creatures — fur,  wool,  hair,  skin,  down,  feathers  and 
scales;  the  creepy  skin  of  serpents,  rasping  cuticle  of 
the  shark,  and  the  horny  hide  of  the  alligator;  horns, 
tusks,  teeth,  hoofs  and  bones  of  the  deer,  elephant,  mam- 
moth, whale,  walrus,  buffalo  and  other  great  and  small 
beasts;  the  shell-like  covering  of  the  tortoise  tribe; 
varigated  shells  of  the  mussel,  oyster,  clam  and  a  vast 
number  of  similar  and  diverse  inhabitants  of  deep  and 
shallow  waters;  the  marvelous  handiwork  of  the  silk 
worm,  spider  and  builders  of  coral  reefs;  the  fibre  and 
foliage  of  countless  trees,  shrubs,  plants,  weeds,  grasses 
and  kindred  substances ;  metals,  precious  and  common ; 
minerals,  ranging  from  stones  of  little  worth  to  gems 
of  almost  incalculable  value;  the  dead  bodies  of  insects 
counting  hundreds  of  thousands  to  the  pound;  the  inky 
secretion  of  the  cuttle  fish,  and,  in  brief,  all  natural  pro- 


10  GENESIS 

ducts,  animal,  vegetable  and  mineral,  have  been  em- 
ployed to  clothe  and  adorn  the  human  form;  and  al- 
though all  these  have  been  freely  used  in  the  simple 
natural  state  and  as  enhanced  in  beauty  and  value  by 
the  patiently  acquired  skill  of  human  artificers,  and 
while  each  has  repeatedly  waxed  and  waned  in  courtly 
favor  as  the  successive  years  have  run  to  silence,  fur, 
strictly  as  such,  alone  has  held  a  continuous  place  in  the 
realm  of  utility,  and  the  ever  broadening  field  of 
aesthetic  favor. 

If  we  could  unerringly  trace  our  way  back  to  the 
era  when  men  began  their  conflict  with  thorns  and 
thistles,  we  would  surely  find  that  the  skins  of  animals, 
crudely  cured  and  rudely  fashioned,  constituted  the 
attire  of  the  race,  and  continued  to  satisfactorily  meet 
the  needs  of  all  until  slowly  advancing  knowledge  led 
to  a  diversity  of  industries  through  the  development  of 
knives,  needles,  multiplied  tools  and  devices  for  the 
manufacture  of  the  varied  "fruits  of  the  loom" — silks, 
satins,  velvets,  laces,  linens  and  other  rich  fabrics,  none 
of  which  excels  in  beauty  and  utility  the  finer  furs  when 
correctly  cured,  appropriately  designed  and  artistically 
finished. 

Barbarous  hunters  and  warriors,  from  the  early 
period  when  every  man  was  "a  law  unto  himself,"  in 
tribal  times,  and  to  the  present  day,  have  worn  and 
continue  to  wear  skins  of  tigers,  leopards,  lions,  wolves 
and  other  fierce  beasts  in  evidence  of  exceptional  valor, 
skill  and  cunning  in  conquest  and  endurance  in  the 
chase,  prizing  the  skins  above  gold  or  cattle  or  other 
forms  of  wealth. 

The  peculiar  people  inhabiting  Iceland,  Greenland, 


GENESIS  11 

and  the  entire  range  of  the  Arctic  regions,  are  clothed 
almost  wholly  in  furs,  skins  and  feathers  of  native  mam- 
mals and  migrant  birds;  and  have  been  thus  appareled 
ever  since  they  first  drew  breath  in  the  frigid  air  of  their 
forbidding  environment. 

In  all  really  cold  sections  of  the  globe  furs  have 
doubtless  always  been  worn  as  the  chief  components  of 
the  daily  dress  of  both  men  and  women  in  consequence 
of  affording  the  wearers  the  utmost  comfort  and  pro- 
tection ;  and  though  climatic  changes  have  occurred,  the 
difference  is  so  slight  that  no  fabric  yet  produced  can 
agreeably  displace  fur  as  the  essential  clothing  of  the 
human  denizens  and  occasional  sojourners  in  zero 
dominated  plains. 

Necessity  and  custom  prevail ;  the  American  Indian 
of  to-day,  though  hedged  about  by  the  civilization  that 
is  crushing  him,  clings  rather  tenaciously  to  his  primi- 
tive costume  of  furs  and  feathers,  or  changes  it  in  part, 
or  partially  abandons  it,  only  under  stress  of  circum- 
stances which  he  cannot  readily  resist. 

Land  grabbers,  in  Indian  parlance  denominated 
"pale  faces,"  have  from  Mayflower  days  to  the  present 
vied  with  the  native  Americans  in  wearing  furs  of  the 
finer  sorts  generally  enhanced  in  beauty,  artistic  design 
and  finish — generally,  but  not  invariably  improved,  as 
evidenced  by  sundry  favored  fads  and  frightful  freaks 
in  fur  dyed  green,  red,  yellow,  purple  and  other  un- 
natural hues. 


FUR  TRADE  OF  AMERICA 

EAI^YHISTORY 


We  doubtless  express  a  fact,  rather  than  an  opinion, 
when  we  state  that  fur  merchants  and  furriers  quite 
generally  believe  that  the  fur  trade  of  America  began 
"on  or  about"  the  day  following  the  discovery  of  the 
country  by  Columbus;  this  view,  it  should  be  under- 
stood, is  confined  to  the  date  of  the  discovery  of  North 
America,  which  alone  is  being  considered  in  this  place, 
as  the  great  continent  southward,  though  producing 
some  fur,  noticeably  chinchilla  and  nutria,  has  never 
had  a  "fur  trade"  within  the  meaning  of  the  term  as 
commonly  employed  and  understood  by  fur  merchants. 

The  discovery  of  America  definitely  in  1492 —  pass- 
ing over  the  misty  claims  of  earlier  Norse  navigators — 
very  considerably  ante-dates  the  beginning  of  the  fur 
business  in  the  "new  world" — why  called  new  world  is 

12 


EARLY   HISTORY  1« 

a  matter  of  wonder,  as  all  the  great  continents  are 
unquestionably  of  equal  age.  While  it  is  true  that  the 
fur  business  in  America  began  many  years  subsequent 
to  the  discovery  of  the  country  by  Norsemen,  Chris- 
topher Columbus  or  Americus  Vespucius,  there  is  no 
doubt  that  certain  furs  were  extensively  used  as  "com- 
ponent materials  of  chief  value"  in  the  production  of 
the  clothing  of  the  native  human  inhabitants  of  the 
country,  the  Indians ;  for  when  the  discoverers  from  the 
several  successive  points  of  departure  first  landed  upon 
the  shores  of  America,  since  so  named,  they  found  the 
Indians  habited  in  furs  and  feathers — nothing  else,  and 
not  much  of  either — fashioned  for  comfort  and  protec- 
tion, not  for  display,  feathers  excepted,  the  squaws  of 
the  various  tribes  being  the  tailors  and  free-hand  de- 
signers of  the  period.  This  condition  we  may  confidently 
believe  had  prevailed  not  only  for  centuries  but  for 
thousands  of  years,  for  while  the  continent  was  new  to 
the  voyagers  from  over-seas,  it  was  as  "old  as  the  hills," 
Grampian  or  any  other,  to  the  red  men.  For  just  how 
many  years  the  Indians  hunted  and  trapped  fur-bearers 
for  food  and  raiment  in  the  swamps  and  vast  woodlands 
of  North  America,  or  from  whence  the  red  men  came, 
no  man  surely  knoweth;  but  we  quite  fondly  entertain 
the  opinion  that  they  made  their  way  thither  very  early 
in  the  history  of  the  human  race,  crossing  from  Siberia 
to  Alaska  in  that  surmised  era  when  the  now  designated 
continents  of  Asia  and  America,  if  not  connected  by  a 
narrow  and  unbroken  highway  of  solid  land,  were  easily 
accessible  via  a  series  of  isles  dotting  the  intervening 
sea,  into  which  they  subsequently  disappeared  in  conse- 
quence of  volcanic  action. 


14  EARLY   HISTORY 

We  entertain  the  opinion,  subject  to  change  upon 
the  presentation  of  indisputable  proof,  that  the  Amer- 
ican Indians  are  the  descendants  of  Adam — the  name 
Adam  signifies  red  man ;  in  holding  this  view  we  logically 
conclude  that  our  Indians  "trace  back"  to  Cain,  the 
first  born,  whom  it  may  reasonably  be  assumed  most 
definitely  inherited  and  passed  on  the  characteristics, 
particularly  color,  of  his  progenitor ;  it  is  so  stated  in  the 
sacred  record. 

It  is  historically  declared  that  Cain  went  forth  into 
the  "land  of  Nod,"  or  Nid,  but  no  one  knows  just  where 
that  land  was  located;  and  it  is  not  known  whither  all 
the  descendants  of  Cain  wended  their  way  when  the  in- 
crease in  the  population  of  the  earth  compelled  them  to 
"move  on." 

A  "Mark"  was  set  upon  Cain;  it  was  decreed  that 
God  should  be  "hidden  from  him,"  that  he  should  be  a 
"fugitive  and  a  vagabond  in  the  earth,"  and  that  every 
man's  hand  should  be  against  him — in  the  Indian  alone 
all  these  conditions  are  wrought  to  a  conclusion. 

There  is  no  occasion  for  "special  wonder"  in  the 
fact  that  all  the  sons  of  Adam  were  not  red;  in  the 
descendants  of  Noah,  onward  from  Shem,  Ham  and 
Japeth,  we  have  the  Caucasian,  African  and  Asiatic 
races ;  and  naturalists  and  trappers  have  observed  black, 
silvery  and  red  foxes  in  the  same  litter,  and  occasional 
albinos  in  every  species  of  fur-bearers. 

Aside  from  all  this,  the  fact  stands  forth  that 
Indians  greatly  outranked  white  men  as  eflf ective  factors 
in  creating  the  fur  trade  in  America,  and  for  many  gen- 
erations were  depended  upon  to  "keep  it  going";  they 
knew  the  haunts  and  habits  of  the  fur-bearers,  were 


EARLY   HISTORY  15 

able  to  match  their  cunning,  and  capture  them  in  large 
numbers,  and  did  it  for  a  reward  so  meagre,  and  fre- 
quently so  vicious,  that  it  is  not  at  all  strange  that  the 
poor,  simple-minded  red  man  never  learned  to  love  his 
pale  faced  despoilers.  Thousands  of  Indians  having  no 
knowledge  of  values  were  for  countless  years  con- 
strained to  part  with  peltries  worth  hundreds  of  dollars 
in  exchange  for  a  few  glass  beads,  a  diminutive  mirror 
or  a  bottle  of  low  grade  whiskey  costing  the  "square 
dealing"  white  man  only  a  few  cents;  the  discreditable 
practice  was  so  long  continued  that  it  is  not  even  mildly 
strange  that  lineal  descendants  of  both,  the  red  trapper 
and  the  white  trader  of  that  very  long  ago,  are  still 
habitants  of  the  land — not  merely  somewhere,  but  easily 
discernible  at  the  "old  stand";  the  real  marvel  is  that 
out  of  the  old  perverse  conditions  men  have  risen  to  a 
vastly  higher  plane  of  living,  so  that  the  great  majority 
of  the  men  in  the  fur  business  of  to-day  are  reputable 
and  trustworthy  in  the  extreme. 

The  exchange  of  a  few  trinkets  of  questionable 
worth  for  bales  of  furs  of  great  value  clearly  constitutes 
the  origin  of  the  term  "fur  trade,"  and  needs  no 
elaborate  explanation ;  the  term  still  abides. 

While  the  discovery  of  the  country  ante-dates  the 
fur  trade  of  America,  the  outranking  fur  trading  sec- 
tion of  the  world,  it  should  be  noted  furs  constituted  the 
foundation  of  mercantile  and  commercial  enterprise  in 
North  America;  crudely  handled  skins  of  indigenous 
fur-bearing  animals  were  the  primal  articles  bartered, 
bought,  sold  and  exported  in  quantity  by  the  men  of 
aifairs  who  first  settled  upon  the  shores  of  the  newly 
found  continent.    The  fur  business  is  indisputably  the 


16  EARLY   HISTORY 

oldest  branch  of  trade  in  America — in  many  respects  it 
is  the  best,  and  in  every  particular  is  the  most  interesting 
field  of  endeavor,  in  which  men  seek  the  rewards  of 
efficient  industry. 

Voyagers  who  in  the  long  ago  dared  the  dangers  of 
the  deep,  were  solely  concerned  in  the  discovery  of  a 
new  and  shorter  route  to  India,  where  it  was  believed 
gold  abounded  in  inexhaustible  supply,  and  could  be 
obtained  for  the  mere  trouble  of  shoveling  it  into  the 
ships ;  the  known  overland  route  to  that  wonderful  coun- 
try was  long,  devious  and  beset  by  many  perils — robber 
bands  more  fearsome  than  stormy  seas — and  hence, 
once  and  again  courageous  men  sailed  away  to  find  the 
short-cut,  the  time-saving  path,  not  to  some  unknown 
terra  firma,  but  to  gold  encrusted  India. 

The  earlier  would-be  discoverers  were  lured  by  the 
old  yet  ever  new  get-rich-quick  impulse;  and  though 
many  failed,  still  responsive  to  the  call  of  gold  ship- 
followed  ship,  and  the  primitive  craft  of  one  persistent 
seeker  sped  on  until  it  touched  the  shores  of  a  better  and 
richer  land  than  India,  and  incidentally  made  possible 
the  subsequent  establishment  of  the  fur  trade  in 
America. 

Craft,  other  than  of  the  order  built  to  sail  the  seas, 
and  get-rich-quick  schemes,  were  predominant  in  the 
earliest  days  of  the  fur  trade,  and  only  leisurely  passed 
from  view;  from  time  to  time  their  spectres  have  re- 
turned to  vexatiously  operate  for  a  brief  season,  not  as 
members  of  the  trade,  but  as  marauders  from  the  hinter- 
land of  Crookdom.    " 

In  August,  1492,  Christopher  Columbus  sailed  from 
Palos,  a  port  of  Spain,  and  on  October  12,  1492,  dis- 


EARLY   HISTORY  17 

covered  America,  but  not  the  mainland,  as  he  steered  his 
course  too  far  south,  near  Cuba  and  the  northern  coast 
of  South  America — and  believing  he  had  found  India 
called  the  natives  Indians,  but  made  no  effort  to  barter 
furs  with  them,  gold  and  silver  and  pearls  being  the 
objects  of  his  quest. 

In  1 501  Americus  Vespucius,  of  Florence,  Italy, 
extended  his  voyages  along  the  eastern  coast  of  South 
America,  wrote  a  fair  description  of  the  country,  which 
being  no  longer  erroneously  regarded  as  India,  was 
named  America  in  his  honor ;  the  great  continent  to  the 
northward  was  later  given  the  same  name. 

In  1497  an  exploring  expedition  was  sent  out  from 
England  which  resulted  in  the  discovery  of  Labrador 
and  Newfoundland — remarkably  good  fur  sections,  but 
too  lightly  appreciated  at  the  time  to  be  developed.  Dur- 
ing the  last  half  of  the  sixteenth  century,  colonies  were 
sent  from  England  to  the  "New  World,"  and{  they 
effected  settlements  at  Jamestown,  Virginia,  and  other 
points,  but  the  colonists  were  so  intently  concerned  in 
obtaining  a  bare  living,  and  living  in  spite  of  Indian 
treachery,  that  no  progress  was  made  in  business  until 
near  the  middle  of  the  succeeding  century.  History  re- 
peated itself  in  the  experience  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers, 
who  landed  at  Plymouth  Rock,  December  21,  1620; 
some  of  these  early  settlers  in  Massachusetts  in  1623 
sent  to  England  a  few  fox,  raccoon  and  muskrat  skins 
as  curiosities,  rather  than  articles  of  commerce. 

The  desire  to  find  a  short  route  to  India  in  order 
to  quickly  garner  goldj  and  precious  stones,  led  the 
thrifty  Hollanders  to  set  Henry  Hudson  adrift  to  find 
it;  pursuing  a  course  the  reverse  of  other  navigators, 


18  EARLY   HISTORY 

who  sailed  too  far  south,  Hudson  directed  his  course 
unduly  northward  into  the  icebound  Arctic,  and,  there- 
fore, had  to  try  again,  and  once  more,  and  at  last  Sep- 
tember, 1609,  touched  at  Sandy  Hook,  and  passed  up  to 
Manhattan  Island.  In  1614  the  Dutch  claimed  by  right 
of  discovery  all  the  territory  along  the  Hudson  River, 
and  a  little  later,  1623,  purchased  from  the  Indians  all 
of  Manhattan  Island  for  twenty-four  dollars,  and  called 
it  Nieuw  Amsterdam — and  the  fur  trade  of  America  ar- 
rived— began  where  it  has  uninterruptedly  flourished  in 
greatest  volume  to  the  present  day,  the  island  of  Man- 
hattan, site  of  the  City  of  New  York. 

The  Dutch  of  1623,  certainly  those  embraced  in  the 
citizenry  of  Nieuw  Amsterdam,  were  tireless  traders, 
bargain  discerning  merchants,  and  wonderfully  success- 
ful raw  fur  collectors,  though  they  issued  no  price  lists 
or  market  reports ;  they  dealt  wholly  with  the  Indians — 
there  would  have  been  "little  in  it"  if  they  had  traded 
with  each  other — urging  the  natives  to  bring  in  all  the 
furs  they  could  obtain,  and  to  keep  eternally  at  it,  quite 
regardless  of  seasons,  future  supplies  or  any  other 
circumstance  at  all  likely  to  reduce  the  catch  below 
"normal." 

The  collections  were  shipped  to  Holland  and  were 
disposed  of  at  profits  per  centum  which  would  render  it 
easily  possible  for  a  fur  merchant  of  the  present  day 
to  contentedly  retire  in  twelve  months. 

Wall  Street,  however,  would  very  likely  point  the 
way  of  return  within  the  year. 

The  Nieuw  Amsterdamers  were  truly  great  traders 
with  aborigines,  and  we  seriously  fear  that  their  mar- 
velous mastery  in  merchandizing  with  the  simple  savages 


EARLY  HISTORY  19 

all  sufficiently  accounts  for  the  supposedly  poetic  but 
really  tragic  line : 

**Lo,  the  poor  Indian." 

The  Acre,  a  small  vessel  which  sailed  from  Nieuw 
Amsterdam  September  23,  1626,  for  Holland,  carried 
as  part  of  the  cargo,  17,812  muskrat,  7,248  beaver,  43 
mink,  675  otter  and  36  wild  cat  skins,  all  of  which  were 
safely  transported  to  destination. 

Nieuw  Amsterdam  was  taken  from  the  Dutch  by 
the  English  in  1664,  and  the  name  was  changed  to  New 
York;  the  island,  city,  and  adjacent  territory  were  fairly 
won  by  the  American  Colonists  in  1 783 — the  only  subse- 
quent change  in  title  being  the  addition  of  the  word 
"Greater,"  more  than  a  century  later. 

Since  the  latter  given  date  the  fur  trade  of  Amer- 
ica has  gradually  become  immeasurably  larger  and  more 
business-like,  and  the  progress  in  both  trade  methods 
and  morals  has  noticeably  been  continuous;  there  is  a 
narrow  margin  for  still  further  improvement  in  a  few 
points,  which  doubtless  will  be  wrought  out  in  the  sweep 
of  time,  as  it  has  been  demonstrated  that  the  leopard 
can  change  its  spots. 

In  1664,  when  the  Dutch  had  moved  out  of  New 
York,  and  the  English  were  the  temporary  masters. 
King  Charles  II.,  very  liberally  bestowed  upon  his 
brother  James,  Duke  of  York,  the  spacious  section  of 
the  present  United  States  known  as  New  York,  New 
Jersey  and  the  New  England  States,  to  be  governed  by 
James  in  return  for  an  annual  tribute  of  forty  beaver 
skins.  James  undoubtedly  regarded  the  grant  as  "dirt 
cheap,"  for  somewhat  later  it  cost  the  price  of  thousands 


20  EARLY   HISTORY 

of  beaver  skins  and  many  good  American  lives  to  induce 
the  Duke  to  vacate  his  governorship. 

About  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  French 
navigators  voyaged  to  what  has  so  long  been  known  as 
the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  and  in  the  name  of  France 
took  possession  of  the  surrounding  country  and  still 
farther  afield,  and  in  time  several  French  colonies  fol- 
lowed and  located  along  the  St.  Lawrence  River  and 
other  parts  of  Canada.  Many  of  these  first  settlers 
became  expert  fur  traders  and  trappers,  and  they  very 
promptly  established  a  number  of  trading  posts  for  the 
collection  of  peltries  along  the  rivers  and  lakes  abound- 
ing throughout  the  country;  one  of  these  fur  traders, 
La  Salle,  extended  his  operations  southward  into  what 
is  now  the  United  States,  and  in  1682  sailed  down  the 
Mississippi  River  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  claimed 
for  France  the  vast  stretch  of  country  from  the  AUe- 
ganies  to  the  Rockies ;  a  liberal  grant — the  richest  catch 
ever  made  by  a  fur  trapper — somewhat  more  than  a 
million  square  miles  all  under  the  title  of  Louisiana. 
This  vast  tract  of  land  and  water  was  purchased  by  the 
United  States  in  1803  for  fifteen  million  dollars,  and 
was  from  that  date  opened  to  settlement  and  unrestricted 
trapping  by  American  citizens. 

While  there  is  no  record  of  the  figures,  we  have  no 
hesitancy  in  stating  that  the  catch  of  fur,  which  is  by 
no  means  the  largest  asset,  since  1803  has  exceeded  by 
several  times  the  amount  of  the  "Louisiana  Purchase." 

In  1804  Merriwether  Lewis  and  William  Clarke  set 
out  from  St.  Louis  to  explore  the  newly  purchased 
Louisiana  territory,  and  following  the  Missouri  River 
to  its  source,  and  then  the  Columbia  River  to  the  Pacific 


EARLY   HISTORY  21 

Coast,  blazed  the  way  for  a  forward  rush  of  hardy- 
settlers,  fearless  hunters  and  sturdy  trappers,  for  in 
addition  to  noting  the  wonderful  extent,  richness  and 
beauty  of  the  country  explored,  Lewis  and  Clarke 
brought  back  in  1806  reports  of  the  discovery  of  prac- 
tically unlimited  numbers  of  fur-bearing  animals,  and 
the  marked  success  of  the  Indians  in  collecting  peltries 
of  incalculable  value. 

Trading  posts  were  established  from  the  Missouri 
to  the  Pacific  by  concerns  in  endless  succession,  each  in 
turn  bent  upon  obtaining  a  monopoly  of  the  fur  busi- 
ness— a  dream  never  realized,  and  never  to  become  other 
than  a  fantasy. 

Those  who  view  the  fur  trade  from  points  of  van- 
tage outside  the  trenches,  as  observers  but  not  as  directly 
concerned,  seem  quite  generally  to  regard  it  as  a  dreary 
means  of  making  a  living,  a  little  dusty,  dingy  and 
oleagonous ;  but  those  who  take  a  higher  interest  in  their 
life  work,  consider  the  records,  traditions  and  progress 
of  the  fur  trade  in  America,  find  in  it  ever  enlarging 
pleasure  and  satisfaction,  and  an  inviting  field  of  en- 
deavor abounding  in  alluring  prospects. 


Carlp  tlTrabersf 

It  may  reasonably  be  asserted  that  long  before 
stone  weapons,  bone  spears,  or  rudely  fashioned  bows 
and  arrows  were  dreamed  of,  each  man  exerted  to  the 
utmost  his  cunning  to  capture  fur-bearing  animals  to 
appease  his  hunger  and  meet  his  conscious  need  of  pro- 
tective clothing ;  it  is  quite  as  certain  that  at  the  first  as 
in  the  present  there  were  successful  and  inefficient  hunt- 
ers and  trappers;  that  a  few  by  patient  observation 
learned  the  ways  of  the  furry  folk  in  their  varied  haunts 
and  in  consequence  were  rewarded  by  good  catches; 
while  others,  trusting  to  luck,  drew  many  blanks. 

Esau,  at  a  much  later  date  than  the  "beginning," 
was  a  mighty  hunter  but  not  always  a  successful  one; 
his  failure  in  the  chase  on  a  certain  day  made  an  irre- 
vocable change  in  history. 

Each  man  was  in  the  beginning  his  own  furrier 
with  varied  results,  and  so  continued  until  multiplying 
needs  and  increasing  consciousness  of  diversified  ability 
led  the  individual  toiler  to  gradually  abandon  tasks  in 
which  he  had  met  defeat,  and  to  devote  his  labor  to 
special  works  of  greater  personal  advantage — hewing 
wood,  drawing  water,  herding  cattle,  sheparding  sheep, 

22 


EARLY   TRADERS  28 

tilling  the  soil,  hunting,  manufacturing  particular 
things,  bartering,  merchandizing,  general  exchange,  and 
the  acquisition  of  knowledge. 

Barter  was  the  earliest  method  of  effecting  mer- 
cantile transactions;  the  successful  trapper  or  hunter 
bartered  the  hare,  deer  or  other  animal  he  had  captured, 
or  the  raw  skin  taken  from  the  carcass,  for  required 
products  of  the  field  or  forest,  or  the  handiwork  of 
primitive  workers  in  fur,  wool,  grasses  and  trinkets — 
ante-types  of  twentieth  century  tinsel  trifles. 

Barter  may  have  been  fair  even  before  the  Flood, 
but  since  that  world-event  barter  has  generally  been 
effected  between  the  wise  and  the  foolish  in  market 
values,  all  too  often  to  disadvantage  of  the  latter;  fur- 
skins  worth  from  tens  to  hundreds  of  dollars  each  have 
been  bartered  for  a  bottle  of  fire-water,  string  of  beads, 
a  pocket  knife  or  a  bright  handkerchief  worth  a  nickel. 

At  the  great  fairs  in  Russia,  in  parts  of  Siberia, 
the  wilder  sections  of  China  and  extreme  northern 
stretches  of  North  America,  barter  has  not  been  wholly 
superceded  by  merchandizing  with  money  as  a  medium 
of  exchange,  but  glass  beads  now  pass  current  in  very 
restricted  areas. 

Of  the  many  species  of  fur-bearing  animals  in- 
digenous to  the  United  States,  or  that  frequent  the  coasts 
and  adjacent  islands  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year, 
several  are  extremely  prolific,  notably  the  muskrat, 
skunk,  opossum,  raccoon  and  mink ;  and  a  number  yield 
pelts  of  superior  beauty  and  value,  the  sea  otter,  fur 
seal,  land  otter,  beaver  and  some  of  the  foxes  ranking 
among  the  finest  and  highest  priced  furs  in  the  world. 
The  most  prolific  of  these  is  the  muskrat,  of  which  from 


24  EARLY   TRADERS 

three  to  four  million  are  caught  each  season.  Others 
taken  in  large  numbers  are:  skunk  up  to  i,ooo,cxx), 
opossum  500,000,  raccoon  400,000  to  700,000,  and  foxes 
approximately  100,000. 

These  and  many  other  fur-bearers,  noted  later,  are 
distributed  throughout  the  states,  but  differ  considerably 
in  size,  color  and  density  of  fur  according  to  the  locality 
they  frequent;  even  skins  of  the  same  species  of  animal 
found  in  different  parts  of  the  same  state  vary  in  in- 
trinsic value,  and  still  greater  differences  in  commercial 
worth  are  plainly  observable  in  skins  secured  in  northern 
and  southern  divisions  of  the  country. 

Peltries  valued  at  millions  of  dollars  are  secured 
annually  by  dealers  and  collectors  in  the  large  cities  and 
numberless  smaller  towns. 

It  will  never  surely  be  known  whether  the  first 
human  inhabitants  of  the  great  Continent  of  North 
America  were  Tartars,  Norsemen  or  simply  unclassified 
sons  of  Adam  many  generations  removed;  or  whether 
they  listlessly  drifted  across  the  intervening  waters,  or 
gradually  made  their  way  thither  by  passing  steadily 
forward  from  island  to  island,  long  prior  to  the  founder- 
ing of  fabled  Atlantis,  when  islands  of  varying  area 
are  supposed  to  have  dotted  the  sea  from  continent  to 
continent. 

That  they  came  somewhen  and  somehow  we  do  not 
doubt,  owing  to  the  conviction  that  there  was  but  one 
creation;  it  is  assumed  that  the  copper-hued  aboriginees 
of  America  were  sons  of  Adam — the  name  meaning  red 
earth — and  definitely  the  descendants  of  Cain,  the  first 
born.  The  interesting  problem  we  would  like  to  solve  is 
whether  the  various  species  of  wild  animals,  fur-bearers 


EARLY   TRADERS  25 

in  particular,  journeyed  with  man  from  one  continent  to 
the  other,  or  were  originally  placed  in  what  we  now 
know  as  North  America  in  anticipation  of  the  coming 
of  man  to  meet  his  known  needs. 


In  1684  Nicolas  Perrot,  a  fearless,  energetic  trader, 
struck  across  the  continent,  starting  from  Green  Bay, 
and  in  company  with  a  band  of  hardy  hunters  raised  the 
French  flag  upon  a  number  of  forts  and  crude  stockades 
to  forestall  any  advances  on  the  part  of  English  traders 
— like  certain  spirits  in  the  trade  at  this  late  day,  they 
wanted  the  "whole  thing,"  though  there  was  fur  enough 
for  all;  one  of  Perrot' s  posts  was  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Wisconsin  River,  and  an  other  was  on  Lake  Pepin ;  both 
prospered  for  some  time,  but  eventually  were  passed 
and  forgotten  as  the  fur  hunters  marched  steadily  on- 
ward toward  the  setting  sun. 

WILUAM    W.    TODD 

William  W.  Todd,  who  was  born  in  1779,  was  em- 
ployed as  a  boy  by  John  J.  Astor,  and  when  he  was  only 
sixteen  years  of  age  was  sent  to  Canada  to  buy  raw  furs 
at  stipulated  prices;  he  spent  the  winter  in  Montreal, 
and  during  the  time  visited  the  nearby  Indians  and  suc- 
ceeded in  purchasing  all  the  furs  they  had  collected.  In 
1796  Mr.  Todd  was  sent  by  Astor  to  sell  deer  tails  to  the 
Tammany  Society,  the  members  of  which  wore  deer 
tails  in  their  hats,  and  in  consequence  were  known  as  the 
"Bucktail  Party"  in  politics. 

Mr.  Todd  remained  in  the  service  of  Mr.  Astor 
until  1797,  when  he  withdrew  and  was  employed  by 
John  Duffie,  general  merchant. 


26  EARLY   TRADERS 

JOHN   G.   WENDEL 

John  G.  Wendel  in  1780  conducted  a  fur  business 
in  Maiden  Lane,  and  for  a  number  of  years  was  one  of 
the  leading  New  York  furriers;  previous  to  coming  to 
America  he  had  married  a  sister  of  John  Jacob  Astor, 
and  when  Mr.  Astor  came  to  New  York  he  entered  the 
employ  of  his  brother-in-law.  In  later  years  one  of 
Mr.  Wendel's  sons,  John  D.  Wendel,  occupied  a  posi- 
tion in  Mr.  Astor's  office,  and  in  the  course  of  his  busi- 
ness career  amassed  a  fortune.  Mr.  John  D.  Wendel 
died  at  his  home  in  the  village  of  Sing  Sing  in  December, 
1876. 

NORMAN   W.    KITTSON 

Norman  W.  Kittson  was  one  of  the  "enlisted"  men 
engaged  by  the  American  Fur  Company,  and  while  he 
was  with  that  concern  he  made  a  thorough  study  of  the 
business  as  it  was  then  conducted. 

In  1832  he  went  to  Minnesota,  and  was  one  of  the 
first  permanent  white  settlers  in  that  state;  he  estab- 
lished a  fur  trading  station  in  that  year  at  Fort  Snelling, 
Minnesota,  acquired  an  excellent  knowledge  of  Indian 
dialects,  and  had  a  large  trade  with  the  Indians  through- 
out the  state,  as  he  made  it  a  rule  to  correctly  value  all 
peltries  brought  to  him.  Some  years  later  he  engaged 
a  number  of  voyageurs  and  extended  his  trading  to 
Manitoba,  with  St.  Paul  as  his  headquarters;  the  men 
employed  by  him  carried  out  sundry  supplies  required 
by  the  Indians,  and  returned  with  packages  of  choice 
skins.  In  1845  he  removed  his  headquarters  to  Pembina, 
N.  W.  T.,  Canada,  where  he  made  large  collections  of 
furs  in  competition  with  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company, 


EARLY   TRADERS  27 

and  in  order  to  expedite  the  transportation  of  goods 
both  ways  between  Pembina  and  Mendota,  Minnesota, 
he  built  a  number  of  small  carts,  two-wheelers  drawn 
by  a  single  pony  each  cart  carried  about  a  quarter  of  a 
ton  of  furs  or  supplies,  and  four  or  five  carts,  strung 
along  behind  each  other,  but  drawn  by  separate  animals, 
could  be  managed  by  one  teamster. 

Mr.  Kittson  often  traveled  with  the  carts,  and 
personally  conducted  buying  at  home  and  in  the  field 
until  1864  when  he  retired  with  a  large  fortune.  He 
subsequently  resided  in  St.  Paul;  in  1880  he  removed  to 
New  York,  where  he  resided  up  to  the  time  of  his  death 
in  1888. 

MICHILIMACKINAC 

Michilimackinac,  a  settlement  on  an  island  of  the 
same  name  at  the  confluence  of  Lakes  Huron  and  Mich- 
igan, near  the  mouth  of  St.  Mary's  River,  was  one  of 
the  earliest  fur  trading  posts  of  real  importance  when 
the  trade  extended  westward. 

In  1765  Alexander  Henry,  'an  energetic  pioneer 
trader,  secured  from  the  chief  official  at  Michilimackinac 
a  license  giving  him  the  exclusive  privilege  of  fur  trad- 
ing in  the  Lake  Superior  section,  and  for  three  years 
he  was  remarkably  successful,  as  by  his  fair  methods 
he  gained  the  entire  confidence  of  the  Indians. 

Michilimacknac — later  more  generally  known  as 
Mackinaw — remained  an  important  post  for  many 
years,  and  in  the  early  years  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
1 800- 1 830,  was  a  center  of  the  southwestern  trade; 
thousands  of  bales  of  peltries,  particularly  beaver  skins, 
were  carried  thither  in  canoes  and  smiU  boats  by  Indian 


28 


EARLY  TRADERS 


hunters  and  experienced  trappers,  and  many  white  men 
engaged  both  in  trapping  and  bartering  with  the  natives. 

The  Mackinaw  Company,  one  of  John  Jacob 
Astor's  organizations,  estabHshed  headquarters  on  the 
island  in  1816,  and  regularly  made  large  and  desirable 
collections,  which  proved  exceptionally  profitable. 

Mackinaw  declined  in  importance  as  trading  ex- 
tended farther  inland. 

On  March  18,  1909,  a  number  of  old  account  books, 
ledgers,  journals  and  others,  belonging  to  the  Astor 
business,  181 7-1835,  at  Mackinaw  (invariably  written 
Michilimacinac  in  these  records)  were  sold  at  auction 
for  $140. 

Prices  paid  for  furs  and  received  for  supplies  com- 
prised part  of  the  interesting  records;  some  of  the 
prices  obtained  for  articles  sold  to  Indians  and  traders 
were:  quart  of  whiskey,  seven  dollars;  pound  of  tea, 
two  dollars;  candle  sticks,  a  pair,  three  dollars  and 
eighty-five  cents,  and  all  other  articles  on  the  same  high 
level. 


EARLY   TRADERS  29 

PIERRE   CHOUTEAU 

Pierre  Chouteau  was  one  of  the  prominent  pioneers 
in  the  fur  trade  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, and  following  the  Louisiana  Purchase  operated 
very  successfully  in  the  new  American  territory,  steadily 
extending  his  chain  of  posts  westward  from  the  Mis- 
souri to  the  Pacific  Coast;  many  good  shipments  were 
forwarded  to  St.  Louis,  and  thence  eastward  to  New 
York,  and  onward  to  Europe.  He  was  exceptionally 
resolute  and  enterprising,  and  amassed  a  comfortable 
fortune.    He  retired  in  December,  1857. 

JOSEPH    LA    FRAMBOIS 

In  181 7  Joseph  La  Frambois  built  a  fur  trading 
post  on  the  Missouri  River,  which  five  years  later  was 
displaced  by  Fort  Tecumseh,  and  in  1832  was  rebuilt 
and  named  Fort  Pierre  Chouteau,  after  the  man  who 
really  made  the  fur  trade  of  that  section  great  by  build- 
ing flat-bottomed  steamboats  suitable  for  navigating  the 
shallow  rivers  abounding  in  the  fur  country,  and  which 
aif  orded  trappers  and  collectors  their  only  advantageous 
means  of  transporting  supplies  to  the  interior,  and  re- 
turn cargoes  of  furs  to  the  larger  posts  on  the  border 
of  civilization. 

In  1859  the  succeeding  firm  sent  a  steamboat  from 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the  Great  Falls,  near  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  nearly  four  thousand  miles,  and  brought 
down  a  full  cargo  of  buffalo  hides. 


Creatp  f|aU 


In  1836  the  American  Fur  Company,  John  Jacob 
Astor  owner,  erected  on  Madeline  Island,  nearly  op- 
posite the  present  town  of  Bayfield,  Wisconsin,  a  rather 
large,  one-story  building,  with  six  windows  on  each 
side,  in  which  the  fur  business  of  the  company  was  con- 
ducted for  many  years,  or  until  collections  were  diverted 
to  other  centers  for  shipment  east.  This  building  came 
to  be  known  as  "Treaty  Hall";  it  was  used  in  1854  in 
formulating  and  ratifying  an  important  treaty  between 
the  United  States  and  the  Chippewa  Indians,  whereby 
the  latter  surrendered  all  rights  and  title  in  a  large  sec- 
tion of  country. 

During  the  period  in  which  the  fur  trade  flourished 
on  Madeline  Island,  the  town  of  La  Pointe  gradually 
developed,  and  in  time  became  the  county  seat;  follow- 
ing the  withdrawal  of  the  American  Fur  Company  the 

80 


TREATY   HALL  81 

town  Steadily  declined  in  importance,  and  is  now  merely 
a  hamlet. 

Treaty  Hall,  though  dilapidated,  remains;  on  ac- 
count of  its  historic  interest  it  was  in  July,  191 7,  pre- 
sented, "free  and  clear,"  to  the  Minnesota  Branch  of 
the  Daughters  of  the  American  Revolution,  by  whom  it 
will  be  restored  to  its  original  condition,  and  maintained. 
A  part  of  the  Hall  will  be  given  over  to  the  Wisconsin 
Daughters  of  the  Revolution  for  the  preservation  of 
relics  of  more  than  usual  historical  importance. 

In  1865  Charles  P.  Chouteau,  Jr.,  then  the  principal 
owner  of  the  American  Fur  Company,  at  a  conference 
in  Washington  sold  all  the  interest  of  the  Company  on 
the  Upper  Missouri  River,  including  forts,  supplies, 
Indian  blankets,  trinkets  and  beads,  to  J.  B.  Hubbell, 
who  had  been  engaged  in  fur  trading  for  a  number  of 
years  in  association  with  A.  F.  Hawley.  Fort  Pierre 
and  Fort  Union,  opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Yellowstone 
River  in  Montana,  were  embraced  in  the  transfer. 

Several  capitalists  at  once  offered  to  join  Mr.  Hub- 
bell  in  his  new  enterprise,  among  them  being  C.  Francis 
Bates,  of  New  York,  and  J.  A.  Smith,  of  Chicago,  both 
of  whom  were  successful  fur  traders;  their  offers  were 
accepted,  and  the  Northwestern  Fur  Company  was 
promptly  organized,  the  members  being  J.  B.  Hubbell, 
J.  A.  Smith,  C.  F.  Bates  and  A.  F.  Hawley.  The  com- 
pany owned  one  steamboat  and  chartered  others,  and 
had  a  large  trade  with  several  Indian  tribes,  and  also 
with  miners,  buying  raw  furs,  buffalo  robes — upwards 
of  twenty  thousand  in  a  season — and  gold  dust.  Mr. 
Hubbell  managed  the  affairs  of  the  company  in  the 
Indian  country  until  it  was  discontinued  in  1872. 


f  oiin  STacoti  •agtor 

John  Jacob  Astor  was  born  at  Waldorf,  Baden, 
July  17,  1763;  at  the  age  of  seventeen  he  went  to  Lon- 
don and  was  employed  in  his  brother's  piano  factory  at 
little  more  than  a  living  wage  in  those  days  of  low-cost 
commodities.  In  November,  1783,  he  sailed  for  the 
United  States,  and  arrived  in  the  Chesapeake  in  Janu- 
ary, 1784;  for  nearly  two  months  the  vessel  remained 
icebound  in  the  bay,  and  did  not  complete  the  voyage 
to  Baltimore  until  March  10.  While  detained  on  the 
vessel  Mr.  Astor  became  acquainted  with  a  fur  dealer 
who  gave  him  considerable  information  regarding  the 
fur  business,  particularly  the  large  profits  to  be  realized 
in  trading  with  Indians,  from  whom  beaver,  otter,  mink, 
and  other  more  or  less  precious  peltries  could  be  pro- 
cured in  exchange  for  gewgaws  of  little  worth. 

After  a  brief  stay  in  Baltimore,  Mr.  Astor  went  to 
New  York,  and  in  the  summer  of  1784  secured  employ- 
ment with  a  furrier,  and  being  industrious  and  faithful 
made  rapid  advancement  in  the  knowledge  of  furs  and 
American  business  methods;  two  years  later,  though 
having  very  little  capital,  he  "set  up"  in  the  raw  fur 
business  on  his  own  account,  and  at  once  began  dealing 
with  the  Seneca,  Oneida  and  other  Indians,  carefully 
following  the  instruction  he  had  received  while  in  the 
grip  of  the  ice  king  in  Chesapeake  Bay.  The  well- 
handled  skins  purchased  from  the  Indians  were  obtained 
upon  favorable  terms — a  sure  profit  of  several  hundred 
per  cent. ;  if  supply  and  demand  at  that  period  had  been 


JOHN   JACOB   ASTOR  38 

as  great  as  at  the  present  time,  a  man  of  means  could 
have  made  a  fortune  "beyond  the  dreams  of  avarice" 
in  a  single  year. 

Mr.  Astor  took  his  first  completed  collection  of 
peltries  to  London,  quickly  disposed  of  the  entire  lot 
at  large  net  returns,  and  with  the  proceeds  bought 
English  goods  suitable  for  the  New  York  market, 
brough  them  home  and  sold  them  to  advantage — mak- 
ing both  ways. 

In  1800  he  made  his  first  shipment  of  furs  to  China 
in  his  own  vessel,  clearing  $55,000  on  the  venture — 
supplemented  by  approximately  equal  gains  on  the 
cargo  of  tea  and  silks  brought  to  America  on  the  return 
voyage. 

Times  have  wondrously  changed;  the  period  of 
large  profits  and  low  cost  of  living  has  been  superseded 
by  the  reverse  conditions,  small  profits  and  high  cost  of 
living — it  is  about  time  for  a  return  voyage. 

Mr.  Astor  conducted  a  successful  business  with 
China  for  seventeen  years,  taking  to  Ah  Sin  full  cargoes 
of  American  furs  of  "very  highest  rating,"  and  bringing 
back  tea,  silk  and  curios;  he  carried  thither  in  a  single 
vessel  more  sea  otter  skins  than  can  now  be  procured  in 
the  whole  world. 

In  1795  Mr.  Astor  entered  the  field  in  competition 
with  the  Mackinaw  Fur  Company  in  the  Northwest  and 
along  the  great  lakes,  but  failed  to  achieve  his  purpose, 
as  the  concern  was  too  strongly  established  in  its  chosen 
territory.  In  1809  he  incorporated  the  American  Fur 
Company,  under  the  laws  of  the  State  of  New  York, 
with  one  million  dollars  capital,  and  somewhat  less  than 
two  years  later  bought  out  the  Mackinaw  Fur  Company 


M  JOHN   JACOB   ASTOR 

and  consolidated  it  with  the  American  Fur  Company, 
under  title,  The  Southwest  Company. 

In  June,  1810,  Mr.  Astor  organized  the  Pacific  Fur 
Company,  in  which  he  took  an  active  interest;  as  ar- 
ranged, he  was  to  own  one-half  of  the  capital  stock, 
and  manage  the  business  at  the  New  York  end,  and  his 
associates — Alexander  Mackay,  Duncan  MacDougal, 
Wilson  P.  Hunt  and  Donald  MacKenzie — were  to  hold 
the  other  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  stock  and  conduct  the 
enterprise  in  the  field ;  the  company  extended  its  opera- 
tions to  Oregon,  experiencing  in  alternation  both  suc- 
cess and  failure.  The  concern  persevered  and  finally 
succeeded  in  establishing  the  settlement  of  Astoria,  but 
failed  to  make  it  a  great  and  enduring  fur  center. 

Those  to  whom  the  history  of  the  race  is  a  closed 
book  are  wont  to  regard  the  present  as  an  age  of  sordid 
commercialism,  but  the  annals  show  that  the  "love  of 
money"  has  been  "a  root  of  evil"  onward  from  the 
moment  when  it  first  became  a  medium  of  exchange. 
Achan  sacrificed  his  own  life  and  the  lives  of  his  sons 
and  daughters  for  "two  hundred  shekels  of  silver  and 
a  wedge  of  gold;"  and  in  all  the  succeeding  years  men 
have  repeated  his  folly,  conclusively  proving  that  penal 
statutes  do  not  make  for  righteousness.  In  every  gen- 
eration there  have  been  men  who  have  sold  themselves 
and  their  friends  and  those  accounted  enemies  for  a 
few  "pieces  of  silver,"  but  never  more  definitely  than 
in  the  early  days  of  the  fur  trade  of  North  America, 
when  the  "gunmen,"  incited  and  employed  to  pillage  and 
burn  and  kill,  were  copper-hued  savages  and  conscience- 
less, greedy  pale  faces;  and  the  men  "higher  up,"  who 
"cared  for  none  of  these  things,"  were  soulless  cor- 


JOHN   JACOB   ASTOR  36 

porate  bodies  wholly  intent  upon  obtaining  a  complete 
monopoly  of  the  fur  trade. 

Though  in  dealing  with  the  Indians  and  whites 
Mr.  Astor  bartered  and  bought  peltries  at  valuations 
certain  to  yield  large  profits,  he  seems  to  have  been 
among  the  first  to  realize  that  no  individual  dealer  or 
association,  however  rich,  could  possibly  garner  all  the 
skins  annually  collected  in  the  country.  When  he  first 
contemplated  extending  his  trade  to  the  Columbia  River, 
and  the  establishment  of  Astoria,  he'  realized  the  fact 
that  he  would  meet  with  very  keen  and  even  savage  com- 
petition, for  at  that  time  the  Northwest  Company,  a 
strong  Canadian  organization,  was  operating  along  the 
coast  and  in  the  interior  a  hundred  miles  or  so  north- 
ward of  the  territory  he  desired  to  occupy ;  he  considered 
the  matter  for  many  months,  and  finally  invited  officers 
of  the  Northwest  Company  to  meet  him,  and  fairly 
and  fully  explained  his  purpose,  and  then  proposed  that 
the  Northwest  Company  continue  to  make  collections  in 
the  vast  section  in  which  it  was  then  engaged,  and  that 
he  would  conduct  his  operations  to  the  southward, 
neither  conflicting  with  the  other.  The  proposition, 
after  considerable  debate,  was  rejected  by  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Canadian  concern,  who  then  returned 
home  and  at  once  prepared  plans  for  extending  their 
stations  to  the  Columbia  River,  in  order  to  preempt  the 
territory,  and  so  make  it  practically  impossible  for  Mr. 
Astor  to  subsequently  effect  a  settlement  in  the  section. 

Mr.  Astor  was  not  easily  turned  aside  from  a  pro- 
ject upon  which  he  had  set  his  heart,  and  consequently 
he  quickly  organized  an  expedition,  hurried  it  forward 
across  the  country  and  arrived  at  the  Columbia  first; 
it  was  a  victory  of  nerve  and  will,  a  triumph  that  in  the 


36  JOHN   JACOB   ASTOR 

end  cost  many  lives,  for  disappointed  greed  did  not  rest 
until  the  Astoria  venture  was  blotted  out — swept  away 
in  the  bitter  war  of  1812,  the  American  government  not 
having  sufficient  military  power  to  defend  it.  A  few 
years  later  murderous  monopoly  was  hurled  across  the 
northern  border  never  to  return;  though  Astoria  was 
recovered  in  this  conflict,  it  was  not  again  used  as  a  fur 
trading  post. 

Mr.  Astor  retired  from  the  fur  trade  in  1822  to 
devote  his  time  to  his  real  estate  interests — the  greater 
source  of  his  wealth.    He  died  in  March,  1848. 

Mr.  Astor  was  succeeded  in  the  fur  business  by 
John  C.  Halsey,  who  shortly  afterward  received  into 
his  employ  Curtis  M.  Lampson,  a  wide-awake  Ver- 
monter,  who  a  little  later  was  sent  to  London  to  repre- 
sent Halsey's  successors,  the  American  Fur  Company. 

C.  M.  Lampson  remained  in  London,  became  an 
English  subject,  and  eventually  a  baronet,  and  in  due 
course  head  of  the  greatest  public  fur  sales  in  history — 
great,  equally,  in  magnitude  and  reliability. 

"FORTS." 

Astor  trading  posts,  of  which  a  large  number  was 
established  at  various  distances  from  the  Missouri,  were 
uniform  in  plan  and  construction;  a  description  of  one 
will  therefore  suffice. 

The  post,  or  stockade,  quite  generally  called  a  fort, 
occupied  an  acre  of  ground,  a  square  of  two  hundred 
feet,  or  a  city  block,  enclosed  by  trunks  of  trees  cut  into 
twelve  foot  lengths  and  set  upright  in  the  ground  close 
together  all  around  the  plot;  at  two  diagonally  opposite 
corners  within  the  enclosure  blockhouses,  twelve  feet 


FORTS 


S7 


square  by  twenty  feet  high,  were  built  of  logs,  small 
openings  being  left  in  the  sides  of  the  upper  story  for 
observation  and  the  use  of  the  gunners  in  cases  of  attack 
by  hostile  Indians.  A  double  gate,  in  one  of  which  a 
small  door  was  set,  constituted  the  only  entrance  to  the 
enclosure;  a  trading  house,  at  which  Indians  delivered 
peltries  and  received  payment,  was  just  within  the  en- 
trance ;  small  dwelling  houses,  built  of  logs,  were  erected 
at  intervals  throughout  the  enclosure.  Indians  brought 
in  raw  furs  of  all  kinds,  and  buffalo  hides  at  the  posts 
in  the  "buffalo  country,"  and  accepted  in  return,  colored 
cloths,  blankets,  knives,  axes,  and  sundry  trinkets. 


^tate  of  Jf  ranfelin 

In  1785  a  part  of  the  present  State  of  Tennessee, 
owing  to  dissatisfaction  on  the  part  of  the  people  with 
official  acts,  was  organized  as  a  separate  state,  known  as 
Franklin;  four  years  later  the  General  Assembly  of  the 
State  of  Franklin  enacted  into  law  the  following  re- 
garding official  salaries  to  date  from  January  i,  1790 : 

Governor,  one  thousand  deer  skins  per  annum. 

Chief  Justice,  five  hundred  deer  skins  per  annum. 

State  Treasurer,  four  hundred  and  fifty  raccoon 
skins. 

Clerk  of  House  of  Commons,  two  hundred  raccoon 
skins  per  annum. 

Clerk  of  Each  County,  three  hundred  beaver  skins 
per  annum. 

Justices,  for  signing  warrants,  one  muskrat  skin 
for  each  warrant  signed. 

Constable,  for  serving  warrant,  one  mink  skin. 

Members  of  Assembly,  three  raccoon  skins  for  each 
day  of  session. 

Secretary  to  the  Governor,  five  hundred  raccoon 
skins  per  annum. 

The  State  was  separated  from  Tennessee  only  for 
a  few  years. 

(BxtQon 

Fort  McLeod,  which  was  located  well  within  the 
border  of  the  territory,  was  the  first  settlement  in 
Oregon  laying  claim  to  being  more  than  a  mere  trading 
post;  it  was  established  in  1805  by  the  Northwest  Com- 
pany of  Canada,  and  was  the  center  of  a  lively  fur 

88 


OREGON  89 

trade  for  a  number  of  years.  It  was  visited  by  many 
Canadian  voyagers  and  efficient  Indian  hunters,  and 
proved  to  be  a  profitable  investment  for  the  company. 

The  earliest  settlement  in  the  Columbia  Valley  was 
Fort  Henry,  named  after  a  successful  trader;  it  was 
built  on  Snake  River  in  1809  by  an  agent  of  the  Missouri 
Fur  Company,  of  St.  Louis.  Operations  were  conducted 
at  Fort  Henry  for  only  two  years ;  it  was  considered  to 
be  too  far  from  the  home  post.  From  1809  to  18 12 
several  similar  forts  were  set  up  from  the  Columbia 
River  northward  into  Canada ;  some  of  them  were  main- 
tained for  a  number  of  years,  but  a  majority  of  them 
were  abandoned  as  unprofitable. 

The  Pacific  Fur  Company  was  organized  by  John 
Jacob  Astor,  Alexander  MacKay,  Duncan  MacDougal, 
Alexander  MacKenzie,  David  MacKenzie  and  Wilson 
P.  Hunt,  the  final  agreements  being  signed  January  23, 
1810. 

Ramsey  Crooks,  a  Scotchman  of  highest  integrity, 
was  employed  by  Mr.  Hunt  in  1809  to  accompany  an 
expedition  to  Oregon;  he  had  formerly  been  with  the 
Northwest  Company,  and  in  that  connection  had  ac- 
quired valuable  knowledge  of  the  country  and  the  best 
methods  of  dealing  with  the  natives. 

Mr.  Crooks  was  somewhat  later  made  a  partner  in 
the  Pacific  Fur  Company,  and  was  one  of  its  most  useful 
and  faithful  members.  Following  the  passing  of  the 
Pacific  Fur  Company,  1812,  Mr.  Crooks  was  admitted 
into  the  American  Fur  Company,  and  ultimately  became 
its  president. 


ORIGINAL   FUR   TRADERS 

Indians  were  the  first  and  only  "out  and  out"  fur 
traders  in  America — strictly  American  fur  traders 
handling  American  furs  exclusively.  How  many  hun- 
dreds of  years,  or  thousands  of  moons  ago  the  red  men 
began  trapping  and  hunting  fur-bearers  ranging  from 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  Hudson's  Bay  history  saith  not, 
and  as  no  one  even  presumes  to  know,  it  is  one  of  the 
few  matters  of  time  regarding  which  there  is  happily 
no  ground  for  learned  controversy — though  a  few 
savants,  whom  for  lack  of  evidence  none  may  convinc- 
ingly contradict,  profess  to  believe  that  before  the  Indian 
was  spontaneously  emerged  from  nox,  or  nix,  cave  men, 
cliff  dwellers,  and  intelligent  predecessors  of  both,  in- 
habited America  and  were  monarchs  of  all  they  sur- 
veyed ;  by  which  we  do  well  in  understanding  that  they 
took  all  they  could  lay  their  eyes  and  hands  on  when  no 
one  else  was  looking. 

Those  prehistoric  monarchs  are  all  gone — they 
probably  raced  to  extinction  in  company  with  the  pre- 
historic monkeys  which  thoughtlessly  permitted  them- 

40 


NEZ    PERCE    BOW    AND    ARROW    CASE 
Smithsonian    Report   1893 


41 


42  ORIGINAL  TRADERS 

selves  to  be  evolved  into  beings  human — but  the  Indian 
remains,  and  his  priority  as  an  American  fur  trader 
may  be  disputed  only  by  the  idle  rich  who  can  afford 
to  wantonly  waste  time. 

For  unnumbered  years  Indians  traded  with  each 
other;  traded  furs  for  bows,  arrows,  tomahaws, 
feathers,  useful  things,  according  to  their  needs  and 
ability  or  inability  to  supply  them;  and  they  would  be 
living  and  exchanging  things  in  the  same  happy  way 
unto  this  day,  if  the  progressive  white  man  had  not  in- 
vaded their  land  and  impressed — probably  imposed  is 
the  better  word — upon  them  his  marvelous  civilization — 
liquid  fire,  deadly  guns,  and  a  business  code  which  Cap- 
tain Kydd  might  have  studied  with  great  personal  profit. 

The  Indians  were  good  judges  of  fur,  but  they  were 
as  ignorant  of  fur  values  as  some  consumers  of  the 
present  period ;  this  simple  statement  of  fact  will  suffice 
to  show  how  easy  it  was  to  trade  with  the  Indians — to 
exchange  a  nickel's  worth  of  red  glass  beads,  or  even 
blue  ones,  for  a  fifty  dollar  raw  fox  skin,  or  any  other 
pelt. 

It  was  a  raw  fur  trade  for  poor  Lo. 

Indians  greatly  appreciated  furs  as  articles  of 
utility,  and  many  of  the  skins  secured  by  them  in  traps 
or  with  bow  and  arrow,  were  used  in  making  clothing, 
couches,  coverings  for  wigwams,  and  other  articles 
adapted  to  their  simple  needs.  Many  of  their  arrow 
cases,  made  wholly  of  fur,  were  artistic  and  attractive, 
and  were  proudly  carried  by  their  owners  at  all  times. 

The  accompanying  illustrations  shows  a  bow  and 
arrow  case  and  bandolier,  one  wholly  of  otter  skin,  fur- 
side  out,  ornamented  with  fringe  of  the  same  fine  fur. 


Fort  Amoersoh  Eskimo  Quiver 


ESKIMO  QUIVER 
This  model,  there  are  other  styles,  is  made  of 
dressed  deerskin,  and  is  provided  with  a  hood — the 
Eskimo  understands  the  importance  of  keeping  his 
powder  dry.  The  ornaments  suspended  along  the  outer 
or  longer  edge  consists  of  the  false  hoofs  of  the  deer 
attached  to  short  thongs  of  buckskin. 

43 


KTEW^   YORB^ 


New  York  City,  in  the  beginning  known  as  Nieuw 
Amsterdam,  is  the  oldest  fur  market  on  the  continent, 
and  the  greatest.  It  is  the  only  fur  center  surviving  the 
era  of  the  tomahawk  that  was  not  originally  established 
solely  as  a  crude  trading  post,  or  named  after  a  saint 
to  impart  character,  or  a  sinner  as  a  memorial  to  his 
financial  rating.  New  York,  under  its  primitive  title, 
was  founded  to  become  a  home-land,  was  settled  by  men 
of  steady  habits,  and  was  named  after  a  flourishing 
foreign  city  in  the  expectation  that  it  would  in  time  be 
as  great  and  renowned  as  the  older  municipality — and 
it  is,  many  times  over. 

The  fur  trade  did  not  put  New  York  on  the  map, 
though  fur  trading  was  indtflged  by  the  first  settlers, 
the  Dutch,  very  soon  after  they  had  landed  and  built 
houses  and  planted  gardens,  as  early  as  1624;  when  the 
Hollanders  gave  place  to  the  English,  1664,  the  name 
of  the  growing  city  was  changed  to  New  York  and  fur 

44 


NEW   YORK  45 

trading  continued,  but  was  incidental  to  empire  building; 
in  the  following  century  the  English  were  constrained 
to  move  out,  and  American  freemen  rode  in,  and  under 
their  rule  New  York  has  become  in  every  particular  the 
greatest  city  of  North  America,  and  incidentally  the 
fur  trade  has  grown  with  it  to  proportions  unapproached 
by  any  other  market  in  the  world;  and  it  now  impres- 
sively touches,  as  no  other  market  does,  either  to  supply 
or  draw  from,  every  mapped  and  uncharted  section  of 
the  globe  where  fur-bearers  abound  and  furriers 
flourish. 

In  New  York  at  the  present  time  there  are  more 
than  two  hundred  and  seventy  fur  merchants — firms 
dealing  in  raw,  dressed  and  dyed  fur  skins — about  nine 
times  the  number  similarly  engaged  in  the  next  largest 
American  center. 

The  number  of  fur  manufacturers  in  New  York 
City,  exclusive  of  makers  of  fur  caps,  robes  and  heads, 
totals  1,075;  Chicago  ranks  next,  with  168;  Philadelphia 
is  third,  with  loi ;  Boston  is  next,  with  60;  the  other 
cities  that  "count"  are:  Milwaukee,  36;  Detroit,  28; 
Baltimore,  2.^;  Cleveland,  24;  Buffalo,  23;  San  Fran- 
cisco, 20,  and  Seattle,  13. 

It  may  seem  to  be  somewhat  peculiar  to  some  read- 
ers, though  it  is  a  matter  of  record,  that  the  fur  busi- 
ness has  invariably  been  good  in  years  when  the  stock 
market  has  shown  a  strong  upward  trend — reversed 
1917. 

There  was  a  time,  not  very  remote,  when  the  tem- 
perature was  the  important  factor  in  determining  the 
volume  of  a  season's  business;  in  recent  years  Fashion 
is  supreme  mistress  in  the  matter,  but  her  reign  could 


46  NEW  YORK 

not  be  so  universally  maintained  were  it  not  true  that 
furs  constitute  the  most  attractive  components  of 
effective  apparel  the  world  over. 

In  1856  the  consumption  of  manufactured  furs  in 
New  York  reached  a  valuation  of  $1,200,000;  the  more 
moderate  cost  skins  were  chiefly  used  at  that  time; 
muskrat  sets  ranging  from  twenty-five  to  thirty-five 
dollars  were  quite  popular;  the  fur  was  then  sold  as 
French  mink,  marsh  marten,  brook  mink,  and  under 
other  names,  some  of  which  still  cling  to  the  article.  In 
1866,  after  the  war,  a  demand  for  better  furs  developed, 
including  Russian  sable  sets  costing  from  three  hundred 
to  fifteen  hundred  dollars ;  fine  Eastern  mink  sets  selling 
up  to  two  hundred  dollars,  stone  marten  from  one  hun- 
dred to  one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  a  set,  and  other 
peltries  of  better  quality  than  had  previously  been  in 
general  request. 

The  trade  to-day  aggregates  several  million  dollars 
per  annum,  and  requires  for  its  development  fur  skins 
of  every  description  collected  from  all  parts  of  creation. 

Wholesale  fur  manufacturers  of  New  York  send 
their  productions  to  every  part  of  the  United  States  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  retailers,  department  and 
specialty  stores,  and  the  consumption  shows  a  steady 
annual  increase. 

This  is  concise,  unadorned  history,  not  a  flourish  of 
trumpets — multiplied  words  would  not  add  to  the  im- 
pressiveness  of  the  facts. 


SEALS   OF   NEW  YORK 

Change  has  been  the  order  in  the  procession  of  the 
ages,  and  nothing  small  or  great  has  been  immune  to 
its  influence ;  its  march  began  prior  to  the  advent  of  man 
upon  terra  firma,  and  has  never  ceased.  When  the 
Dutch  per  force  of  circumstances  moved  out  of,  and  the 
English  entered  upon  the  possession  of  Manhattan 
Island,  the  name  of  the  developing  city  at  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  island  was  changed  from  Nieuw  Am- 
sterdam to  New  York  to  emphasize  the  change  in  ruler- 
ship.  This  change  necessitated  another,  the  designing 
of  an  appropriate  official  seal  for  the  City  of  New  York ; 
in  1653  the  seal  here  shown  was  adopted.    It  consisted 


FIRST    SEAL.    OF    NEW    YORK 


of  a  flag  with  three  crosses  on  the  center  stripe,  and 
above  the  flag  the  figure  of  a  beaver,  an  animal  prized 

47 


48 


SEALS   OF   NEW   YORK   CITY 


by  the  Dutch  on  account  of  its  ready  conversion  into 
the  coin  of  the  realm,  and  honored  by  the  English  as  the 
native  fur-bearer  most  pleasingly  characteristic  of  the 
territory  a:  id  the  period. 

As  time  progressed  constantly  increasing  attention 
was  devoted  to  raising  grain,  and  multiplied  windmills 
were  turned  to  profitable  account  in  grinding  whole 
wheat  flour — another  precious  product  seriously  affected 
for  the  worse  by  refining  change.  In  due  course  many 
barrels  of  flour  were  exported  from  New  York,  flour 
and  beaver  pelts  going  abroad  in  the  same  ship,  the 
former  gradually  and  steadily  leading  in  importance. 
This  export  trade  led  to  another  change,  the  production 
in  1686  of  a  new  seal  for  the  city,  as  here  portrayed. 


SECOND    SEAL    OF    NEW    YORK 


The  flag  was  superceded  by  a  shield  upon  which 
was  drawn  two  barrels,  symbols  of  barrels  of  flour,  the 


SEALS   OF   NEW   YORK   CITY 


49 


sails  of  a  windmill,  the  miller's  engine  of  that  day,  two 
beavers,  and  a  white  man  and  an  Indian;  it  was  the 
purpose  of  the  latter  to  evidence  the  friendly  relations 
existing  between  the  two  races — the  pale-faced  miller, 
and  red-visaged  beaver  catcher.  The  design  was  topped 
with  a  crown — symbol  of  the  over-ruling  kingdom. 

This  new  seal  endured  for  a  while,  and  was  then 
change  struck  by  the  vigorous  American  Revolution, 
which  sent  the  crown  hurling,  and  mounted  in  its  stead 
a  glorious  eagle,  which  has  proved  to  be  a  long  lived 
bird  of  freedom. 


THIRD    SEAL    OF    NEW    YORK 


Imposing  the  eagle,  which  fearlessly,  mounts  to 
heights  unknown,  in  place  of  the  crown,  emblem  of  an 
unstable  crown,  was  the  only  change  made  in  the  seal 


60  SEALS   OF  NEW  YORK   CITY 

to  mark  the  passing  of  an  autocracy,  and  the  beginning 
of  a  triumphing  republic. 

Change  in  its  restless  march  has  swept  the  beaver, 
the  windmill  and  the  Indian  westward,  and  to  the  con- 
fines of  oblivion;  but  New  York,  though  wondrously 
changed,  remains,  and  has  become  the  most  populous 
city  on  the  North  American  continent,  and  has  attained 
that  glory  because  millions  of  men,  men  of  every  name 
and  color,  have  sought  and  found  desired  liberty  and 
peace  in  a  change  from  monarchy  to  democracy. 

CREDIT   ASSOCIATION 

The  Fur  Merchants'  Credit  Association  of  the  City 
of  New  York  was  incorporated  January  25,  1898;  the 
members  at  that  time  were :  G.  Gaudig  &  Blum,  Joseph 
Steiner  &  Brothers,  Leopold  Weil  &  Brothers,  Joseph 
Ullmann,  Bach,  Becker  &  Company,  J.  &  L.  Mautner, 
Eisenbach  Brothers  &  Company,  E.  J.  King's  Sons, 
Thorer  &  Praetorius,  F.  N.  Monjo,  Akiba  Weinberg, 
Otto  Erler,  Mayers  &  Tigner,  Theodore  Apfel  and 
Edgar  Lehman. 

Charles  Myers,  actuary. 

The  Association  has  continuously  wrought  wisely 
and  effectually  in  improving  the  general  conditions  and 
moral  status  of  the  fur  business  in  America;  the  in- 
creased membership  evidences  the  value  and  importance 
of  the  results  accomplished,  and  clearly  reveals  the  fact, 
that  in  the  opinion  of  all  in  interest,  the  association  has 
become  indispensible. 

Mr.  Richard  S.  Otto,  a  man  of  recognized  ability, 
efficiently  serves  the  Association  as  actuary. 


RAW  FUR  MERCHANTS'  ASSOCIATION 

The  Raw  Fur  Merchants'  Association  of  the  City 
of  New  York,  one  of  the  most  important  organizations 
ever  called  into  virile  life  in  the  trade,  was  organized 
in  19 14,  and  later  in  the  year  was  duly  incorporated 
under  the  laws  of  the  State  of  New  York.  At  a  meeting 
of  the  Association  held  June  9,  19 14,  the  first  board  of 
directors  was  chosen,  embracing:  O.  Godfrey  Becker, 
A.  E.  Prouty,  F.  N.  Monjo,  Charles  Bayer  and  Adolph 
Wiener.  The  officers  subsequently  unanimously  elected 
were :  O.  Godfrey  Becker,  president ;  A.  E.  Prouty,  vice- 
president;  Paul  Belden,  secretary;  David  Steiner, 
treasurer. 

The  Association  was  formed  upon  broad  principles 
essential  to  the  maintenance  and  prosperity  of  the 
fundamental  branch  of  the  fur  trade;  the  purposes  set 
forth  included  the  conservation  of  the  interests  of  every 
one,  the  least  as  well  as  the  greatest,  engaged  in  any  way 
in  handling  raw  furs ;  to  exalt  the  business  to  the  highest 
attainable  standard  in  public  estimation;  eliminate  sun- 
dry evils  in  methods  and  competition  which  had  in  the 
course  of  the  years  crept  into  the  trade  as  they  in- 
sideously  invade  every  important  branch  of  industry; 

61 


52  RAW   FUR   MERCHANTS'   ASSOCIATION 

and  to  take  concerted,  helpful  and  reformatory  cog- 
nizance of  all  conditions  in  any  wise  affecting  the  busi- 
ness locally  or  at  large. 

The  influence  of  the  Association  has  been  good 
and  uniformily  beneficial,  affirming  the  wisdom  of  call- 
ing it  into  being,  and  fully  warranting  its  great  value 
as  a  permanent  institution. 

It  was  born  in  troublous  times ;  fought  its  way  into 
existence  in  conflict  with  a  host  of  doubts,  and  fears, 
and  chilling  discouragements,  and  worse,  the  too  evi- 
dent prospect  that  individual  merchants,  standing  alone, 
each  a  law  unto  himself,  would  sooner  or  later — not 
much  later — ^be  swirled  into  deep  waters  by  antagonisms 
within  and  conscienceless  methods  in  outlying  fields. 

In  unity  strength  has  been  developed — the  strength 
always  existed,  and  only  needed  to  be  merged  to  be- 
come mighty — harmony  has  succeeded  discord;  per- 
verse conditions  have  given  place  to  progressive 
methods ;  what  was  good  has  been  retained  and  merged 
into  that  which  is  better,  and  each  successive  step  is 
toward  the  attainment  of  the  best. 

Application  for  membership,  at  the  meeting  of 
organization,  was  signed  by  the  following  firms:  Jos. 
Steiner  &  Brothers,  Becker  Brothers  &  Company,  Bayer 
Brothers,  H.  A.  Schoenen,  M.  F.  Pfaelzer  &  Company, 
Milton  Schreiber,  Joseph  Ullmann,  George  I.  Fox,  F.  N. 
Monjo,  James  S.  Hanson,  L.  Briefner  &  Sons,  David 
Blustein  &  Brother,  Leopold  Gassner,  L.  Rabinowitz, 
Marquis  Fur  Company,  Harry  Levy,  Max  Wulfsohn, 
J.  L.  Prouty's  Sons,  L.  A.  Rubenstein  Company,  M. 
Sayer  &  Company,  Struck  &  Bossak,  Inc.,  Samuel  Lewis. 


ASSOCIATED  FUR  MANUFACTURERS,  Inc. 

Under  the  above  title  a  large  number  of  influential 
fur  manufacturers  of  New  York  City  organized  in 
August- September,  191 1,  and  incorporated  in  1912,  for 
purposes  herein  set  forth  in  detail;  the  first  business 
meeting  of  the  completed  organization  was  held  in  Jan- 
uary, 1912,  and  the  following  officers  and  directors  were 
elected:  Max  Thorn,  president;  Alexander  Heilbroner, 
first  vice-president;  Leo  D.  Greenfield,  second  vice- 
president;  William  Ames,  third  vice-president;  Fred- 
erick Kaufman,  secretary;  Nathan  Sobel,  treasurer. 
Directors:  William  Ames,  Herman  Baehr,  Frederick 
Kaufman,  Adolph  Engel,  Nathal  Sobel,  S.  N.  Samuels, 
Max  Thorn,  L.  M.  Borden,  Alexander  Heilbroner,  Max 
Cohen,  Leo  D.  Greenfield,  Frederick  P.  Kamholz,  S.  J. 
Manne,  Hugo  Jaeckel,  Jr. 

The  purposes  of  the  Association  are: 

To  foster  trade  and  commerce  and  promote  the 
interests  of  those  individuals,  firms  and  corporations 
who  are  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  furs  and  skins 
and  the  sale  of  goods  made  therefrom. 

To  co-operate  for  the  improvement  of  all  conditions 

68. 


54  ASSOCIATED   FUR  MANUFACTURERS,   Inc. 

relating  to  such  industries;  to  regulate  and  correct 
abuses  relative  thereto,  and  to  secure  and  maintain 
freedom  from  unjust  and  unlawful  exactions. 

To  secure,  preserve,  diffuse  and  interchange  ac- 
curate and  reliable  information  valuable  to  the  members 
and  to  establish  uniformity  and  certainty  in  the  customs 
and  usages  of  trade,  and 

Generally  to  promote  the  interests  of  those  engaged 
in  such  business  and  establish  and  promote  a  more  en- 
larged and  friendly  intercourse  among  them  and  to  do 
such  other  and  further  acts  and  things  relating  thereto, 
as  may  be  found  necessary  or  convenient  so  far  as  the 
same  are  permitted  by  the  laws  of  the  State  of  New 
York  to  corporations  similarly  organized. 

The  purposes  of  the  organization  have  been  care- 
fully and  consistently  carried  into  effect  with  very  great 
advantage  to  the  entire  membership;  conditions  un- 
favorably affecting  the  trade  locally  and  at  large  have 
been  wisely  changed  and  definitely  corrected;  and 
methods  which  threatened  the  stability  of  the  fur  busi- 
ness have  been  supplanted  by  proper  mercantile  prin- 
ciples of  action — results  which  could  not  have  been 
achieved  other  than  by  the  united  efforts  of  the  firms 
in  interest. 

A  Credit  Bureau,  efficiently  conducted  in  connec- 
tion with  the  work  of  the  Association  has  been  in  suc- 
cessful operation  for  some  time  past ;  its  usefulness  may 
be  measurably  gauged  by  the  fact  that  some  eighteen 
thousand  reports  were  sent  out  in  191 6. 


BOARD  OF  TRADE  OF  THE  FUR  INDUSTRY 

In  order  to  effectually  harmonize  the  interests  of 
firms  and  individuals  engaged  in  the  various  branches 
of  the  business,  the  Board  of  Trade  of  the  Fur  Industry 
was  organized  March  3,  1914;  the  officers  chosen  at 
that  time  were :  Samuel  Ullmann,  chairman ;  Alexander 
Heilbroner,  vice-chairman;  I.  Harold  Stern,  secretary; 
Edward  M.  Spear,  treasurer. 

The  Board  of  Trade  of  the  Fur  Industry  consists 
of  the  following  organizations :  Fur  Merchants'  Credit 
Association  of  the  City  of  New  York,  Associated  Fur 
Manufacturers,  Inc.,  Fur  Dressers'  and  Fur  Dyers'  As- 
sociation, Inc.,  Raw  Fur  Merchants'  Association  of  the 
City  of  New  York,  Inc. 

Each  of  these  organizations  may  be  represented  at 
a  meeting  of  the  Board  by  five  delegates,  thus  insuring 
perfectly  just  action  relative  to  the  interests  of  the  re- 
spective branches. 

It  is,  among  other  things  of  moment,  the  purpose  of 
the  Board  of  Trade  to  foster  mercantile  interests,  de- 
velop more  effective  co-operation  among  the  existing 
associations,  reform  abuses,  settle  terms  and  differences, 
and  equitably  adjust  all  matters  pertaining  to  the  wel- 
fare of  the  various  branches  of  the  fur  industry. 

55 


NEW  YORK  FUR  AUCTION  SALES  CORPORA- 
TION 

The  vicious  war  in  Europe  beginning  in  August, 
1914,  involving  all  the  continental  powers  and  into  which 
England  was  soon  drawn,  began  within  twelve  weeks  of 
the  active  opening  of  the  American  raw  fur  season  of 
that  year;  the  immediate  commercial  effect  .was  the 
blotting  out  of  the  London  Public  Fur  Sales  as  by  fire ; 
all  foreign  markets  were  closed  as  instantaneously  and 
eif  ectually  as  though  depopulated  by  a  devastating  earth- 
quake; the  American  trade  was  stunned,  prices  on  raw 
furs  declined  sharply,  trapping  was  discouraged,  and 
widespread  disaster,  which  none  cared  to  estimate,  was 
regarded  as  inevitable. 

Fear  centered  in  the  prospect  of  a  collection  of 
skins  far  in  excess  of  possible  domestic  consumption; 
and  as  in  the  circumstances  no  standard  of  values 
existed,  no  one  knew  the  amount  that  should  or  could 
be  paid  for  peltries  in  the  new  season's  catch  so  as  to 
avoid  incurring  a  minimum  loss,  which  all  considered 
certain,  on  surplus  supplies. 

Low  quotations  and  advices  to  trappers  to  restrict 
their  operations  resulted  in  modifying  the  collection  to 
some  extent;  and  as  the  days  sped  by  American  pluck 
and  competition  characteristic  of  the  raw  fur  trade  re- 
vived somewhat,  and  the  catch  of  fur  was  taken  up. 
Near  the  close  of  the  trapping  season,  April  i,  fashion 
leaders  announced  that  furs,  particularly  neckwear, 
were  to  be  worn  during  the  summer  of  191 5;  this  new 
fad  rapidly  spread  over  the  entire  country,  and  afforded 
material  relief  to  the  trade,  as  many  thousands  of  skins 
were  worked  up  in  meeting  this  unexpected  demand. 

66 


FUR   AUCTION   CORPORATION  57 

Raw  fur  merchants  were  somewhat  heartened,  but 
the  more  thoughtful  among  them  reaHzed  that  the  cus- 
tom of  wearing  furs  all  the  year  round  could  not  reason- 
ably be  expected  to  endure,  and  that  some  sound  method 
of  determining  values,  which  were  "all  at  sea,"  must  be 
devised;  the  problem  was  studied  in  all  its  phases,  and 
before  the  collection  season  of  191 5  opened  it  was  wisely 
decided  to  offer  skins  of  the  new  season's  catch  in 
quantity  at  public  sale,  open  to  interested  merchants 
from  all  parts  of  the  world,  for  the  double  purpose  of 
ascertaining  the  possible  volume  of  consumption,  and 
establishing  a  uniform  standard  of  values.  To  carry 
the  matured  plans  into  effect  that  New  York  Fur  Sales 
Corporation  was  organized  in  November,  191 5,  and  in 
due  course  was  incorporated  under  the  laws  of  the  State 
of  New  York  with  one  million  dollars  capital,  with  full 
authority  to  receive  furs  from  any  part  of  the  world 
and  sell  the  same  at  auction  in  New  York  City,  the 
logical  fur  center. 

All  necessary  arrangements  were  duly  perfected, 
and  the  first  public  sale  was  held  in  the  Metropolis  in 
January,  191 6;  the  offerings  included  all  classes  of 
American  raw  furs  in  large  lots ;  the  attendance  of  buy- 
ers was  unprecedented  in  number  and  purchasing  power, 
and  prices  much  above  expectations  were  realized.  The 
sale,  considered  from  every  standpoint,  was  a  veritable 
triumph;  the  succeeding  auction  in  March  duplicated 
the  remarkable  record. 

The  New  York  Fur  Sales  Corporation,  with  the 
support  of  public  spirited  fur  merchants  and  manufac- 
turers, not  only  revived  but  definitely  made  the  fur  trade 
of  America  what  it  is  to-day — in  everything,  the  really 
worth  while,  is  not  what  was,  but  what  is. 


"FRESH  WATER  POND,"  NEAR  CENTER  STREET,  NEW  YORK  CITY, 

WHEN    MANHATTAN    ISLAND    WAS    DISCOVERED 

From  an  Old  Print 

FOREIGN   TRADE 

Foreign  trade  at  the  port  of  New  York  for  the 
fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  191 5,  reached  the  aggregate 
value  of  $2,255,672,244,  and  for  the  year  ending  June 
30,  1916,  the  total  was  $3,805,882,189.  The  foreign 
trade  of  all  other  ports  of  the  United  States  for  the 
above  period,  1916,  was  $3,432,639,554 — these  figures 
show  that  New  York  City's  share  of  the  foreign  com- 
merce of  the  United  States  was  52.57  per  cent,  of  the 
total. 

The  foreign  trade  of  the  entire  country  for  year 
ending  June  30,  191 7,  was  $8,953,000,000,  divided  as 
follows:  exports,  $6,294,000;  imports,  $2,659,000,000. 

68 


patriotic 

At  the  largely  attended  public  sale  of  raw  furs 
held  by  the  New  York  Fur  Auction  Sales  Corporation, 
beginning  March  27,  19 17,  President  Charles  S.  Porter 
presented  the  following  resolution,  which  was  adopted 
by  a  rising  vote: 

"Whereas,  a  critical  situation  now  exists  in  the  inter- 
national affairs  of  our  nation. 

"And  Whereas,  preparations  are  now  under  way  for  the 
mustering,  enlisting  and  mobilizing  of  troops  and  naval  forces, 

"Be  It  Hereby  Resolved  in  this  international  crisis  that 
we,  the  members  of  the  fur  industry,  assembled  from  all  parts 
of  the  United  States,  at  the  New  York  Fur  Auction  Sales, 
pledge  our  moral,  physical  and  financial  support  in  behalf  of 
our  beloved  country; 

"That  we  publicly  declare  our  loyalty  to  our  nation,  sup- 
port to  our  President,  and  confidence  in  our  Congress ; 

"That  we  stand  ready  to  make  any  and  all  sacrifices 
necessary  to  uphold  our  national  honor ; 

"That  never  should  the  sacred  principles  upon  which  our 
Government  is  founded,  be  undermined ; 

"That  we  pledge  allegiance  to  our  flag  and  to  the  republic 
for  which  it  stands,  one  nation  indivisible,  with  liberty  and 
justice  for  all." 

The  fur  merchants  and  furriers  of  the  Metropolis 
are  not  only  patriotic  but  liberal;  their  contribution  in 
cash  to  the  Red  Cross  Fund  in  July,  191 7,  reached  the 
gratifying  total  of  $16,767.50. 


69 


Jteto  0xkmsi 

New  Orleans,  the  principal  city  of  Louisiana,  was 
founded  by  French  explorers  and  traders  in  1718,  at 
which  time  cotton,  sugar  and  rice,  products  later  center- 
ing at  New  Orleans  in  vast  quantities,  were  not  even 
dreamed  of  in  connection  with  the  locality;  the  early 
settlers  were  chiefly  concerned  in  collecting  and  shipping 
raw  furs  which  were  readily  obtainable  in  large  lots  in 
the  surrounding  woods  and  bayous.  Otter,  bear,  rac- 
coon, muskrat  and  other  fur-bearers,  though  not  of  the 
best  grade,  were  important  in  point  of  numbers,  and 
aggregate  value. 

In  1762  an  association  of  merchants  was  organized 
under  the  leadership  of  Laclede,  to  prosecute  the  fur 
trade  systematically  along  the  Missouri  River  and  its 
branches,  and  from  that  date  the  raw  fur  business  of 
New  Orleans  steadily  increased  in  magnitude,  and  be- 
came a  profitable  branch  of  trade. 

New  Orleans  was  purchased  by  the  United  States 
in  1803,  and  since  that  time  trapping  has  been  quite 
general  in  the  territory.  Muskrats  are  particularly 
abundant  in  the  bayous,  creeks  and  along  the  levees,  and 
in  recent  years  the  catch  has  reached  a  total  of  many 
thousands  of  skins;  the  Louisiana  muskrat  is  smaller 
and  thinner  in  fur  than  specimens  caught  farther  north, 
but  they  have  their  uses  and  all  are  marketed. 

Large  collections  of  peltries  are  received  at  New 
Orleans  from  Texas,  Alabama  and  other  States  as  well 
as  Louisiana,  and  it  is  now  a  busy  fur  market — it  is  an 
interesting  fact  that  there  are  more  raw  fur  merchants 
in  New  Orleans  to-day  than  at  any  time  prior  to  191 5. 

60 


Competttton 

It  is  an  impressive  fact  that  in  the  beginning  of  the 
fur  trade  in  America  competition  was  rank,  viciously 
so;  in  their  conflict  with  savage  natives,  upon  whose 
trapping  grounds  they  intruded,  many  white  men  be- 
came the  greater  savages.  Some  of  the  trappers 
stealthily  appropriated  the  fur  found  in  the  traps  of 
their  fellow  craftsmen,  and  brazenly  despoiled  the  traps 
and  snares  of  the  Indians;  there  were  white  trappers 
who  directed  others  away  from  good  trapping  grounds, 
though  many  square  miles  in  extent ;  others  deliberately 
lied  to  inquirers  desiring  to  be  shown  the  way  to  a 
nearby  trading  post,  sending  them  off  upon  an  opposite 
course  in  the  hope  that  they  with  their  packs  of  fur 
would  become  lost  in  the  forest,  and  thus  reduce  the 
volume,  and  correspondingly  augment  the  value  of  their 
own  collection;  a  few  there  were  who  wantonly  mur- 
dered their  more  successful  rivals,  and  in  instances  their 
immediate  trapping  partners,  in  order  to  rob  the  former 
or  avoid  the  necessity  of  dividing  the  catch  with  the 
latter. 

Methods  pursued  by  individual  trappers,  or  groups 
of  two  or  three  working  together,  soon  changed  the 
Indians  from  simple  minded  co-operators  to  bitter 
enemies,  and  trapping  became  a  dangerous  occupation. 
Instead  of  meeting  the  issue  by  curbing  the  vicious 
greed  of  the  white  men,  and  treating  the  Indians  justly, 
the  remedy  was  sought  in  combination,  and  parties  of 
twenty  to  fifty  were  organized  to  hunt  and  trap  together 
upon  shares;  the  plan  proved  somewhat  safer  than 
operating  singly,  in  pairs  or  trios;  but  the  skillful  and 
industrious  trappers  soon  wearied  of  dividing  the  spoils 

61 


62  COMPETITION 

of  the  catch  with  indolent  associates,  and  one  by  one 
they  resumed  their  independence. 

Traders  adopted  the  same  policy,  organization. 
They  assumed  that  by  combining  their  mediums  of  ex- 
change— beads,  little  mirrors,  cheap  knives  and  tinsel 
trinkets — they  would  be  financially  able  by  fair  means 
or  otherwise,  especially  otherwise,  to  drive  individual 
traders  out  of  the  field,  and  so  secure  all  the  fur  caught 
in  a  particular  section  at  their  own  figures,  and  in  due 
course  all  the  fur  procured  in  all  sections,  that  is,  obtain 
a  complete  monopoly  of  the  trade — buy  up  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  beaver  skins  at  the  rate  of  ten  cents 
worth  of  glass  beads  for  each  five  dollar  beaver  pelt, 
and  other  skins  at  the  same  ratio.  It  was  a  good  scheme 
if  it  would  work — it  was  a  good  scheme  if  it  wouldn't 
work — viewed  simply  as  a  scheme  it  was  considered 
flawless,  and  was  adopted  without  amendment ;  in  some 
cases  and  places  it  worked,  was  decidedly  industrious 
for  a  while;  but  the  great  success  achieved,  instead  of 
crushing  competition  created  it "  one  association  after 
another  was  formed,  the  last  being  stronger  in  men  and 
means  than  those  preceding  it,  and  no  one  knows  how 
much  worse,  for  through  all  trickery,  thievery  and  blood 
shed  ran  riot — it  was  more  than  Greek  meeting  Greek, 
dog  eating  dog,  or  the  duel  of  kilkenny  cats;  it  was  all 
these  in  simultaneous  action.  The  conflict  ended  in  the 
quietus  of  monopoly,  not  as  a  pernicious  method, 
oh  no!  but  because  of  the  annihilation  of  the  would-be 
monopolists. 

Competition  lived  on,  though  but  little  less  destruc- 
tive, or  more  worthy  to  exist ;  in  the  passing  years  com- 
petition has  been  rationally  modified,  and  in  the  still 


COMPETITION  63 

wiser  ways  of  not  far  distant  days  will,  we  believe, 
wholly  give  place  to  helpful  co-operation. 

The  first  effort  to  regulate  competition,  and  check 
the  increasing  tendency  of  individual  traders  to  outbid 
each  other  for  all  offered  lots  of  fur,  found  expression 
in  a  request  to  trappers  to  carry  their  collections  to 
named  posts,  convenient  points  in  the  wilderness  and 
other  places,  on  set  dates,  the  goods  to  be  sold  or  bartered 
on  the  same  day;  the  plan  gave  each  trapper  an  equal 
chance  in  selling,  and  all  traders  an  opportunity  to  buy 
on  the  same  terms;  the  arrangement  was  too  much  like 
real  business  to  endure,  as  each  trapper  believed  he 
could  do  better  for  himself  if  he  brought  his  collection 
to  market  when  no  other  trappers  were  present,  as  under 
that  condition  all  the  local  dealers  would  contend  for  it; 
and  each  trader  was  sure  that  if  unnoticed  he  wandered 
afield  and  met  the  trapper  alone — "saw  him  first" — he 
could  secure  the  fur  at  his  own  price. 

Competition  has  always  been  keen,  and  at  times 
actually  cutting;  recourse  has  been  had  in  the  passing 
years  to  trick  and  device  by  dealers  ambitious  to  mount 
to  the  top;  but  true  and  enduring  success  has  been 
achieved  only  by  fair  means  and  correct  methods. 

SPECULATION 

Speculation  has  been  the  animating  spirit  of  the 
fur  business  in  America  from  the  beginning,  and  it  has 
been  of  every  shade  through  white  to  black — rational, 
consistent,  simple,  foolish  and  rank.  The  fur  trader, 
wherever  and  whenever  operating,  has  ever  been  ready 
to  "take  a  chance,"  a  moderate,  desperate  or  despicable 
chance  according  to  his  trend  or  training;  in  the  early 


W  SPECULATION 

years  of  the  business  the  chance  seems  to  have  been  a 
"sure  thing,"  and  it  was  as  regards  the  extremes — cost 
to  the  trader  and  the  price  at  which  he  sold,  if  he  lived 
to  complete  the  transaction. 

The  early  trader,  however,  had  his  own  troubles, 
and  unavoidably  took  some  rather  long  chances — an 
unscrupulous  partner  might  carry  off  all  unguarded 
peltries  in  a  night ;  there  was  the  possibility  of  meeting 
bands  of  hostile  Indians  from  whom  he  could  escape 
only  by  abandoning  his  goods;  his  entire  collection  of 
precious  furs,  very  generally  transported  along  rivers, 
was  liable  to  be  swept  away  by  freshets;  or  he  might 
lose  his  way  in  the  wilderness  and  perish  of  starvation 
— all  these,  and  many  more,  are  chances  actually  run 
and  experienced.  Conditions  continuously  change  with 
the  flight  of  time;  to-day,  steamboat,  railway  and  ex- 
press companies  speedily  transfer  raw  furs  from  nearby 
and  remote  trapping  grounds  to  the  warehouse  of  the 
fur  merchant — but  he  still  takes  a  chance  on  every  lot 
he  buys,  and  all  he  sells  other  than  for  cash. 

Unseasonable  weather  may  adversely  affect  busi- 
ness, lessen  demand,  and  cause  a  marked  depreciation 
in  values;  fashion  may  change  and  result  in  a  strong 
advance  or  a  disastrous  decline  in  price  before  the  goods 
pass  to  the  possession  of  the  next  buyer;  furs  costing 
fifty  thousand  dollars,  if  sent  to  the  public  sales  may  net 
the  shipper  a  profit  of  ten  thousand  dollars  or  the  loss 
of  a  greater  amount. 

He  buys  on  his  own  judgment,  and  believes  it  is 
good,  but  he  never  knows;  he  cannot  tell  how  any  lot 
of  fur  will  work  out  until  it  is  sold,  "clear  and  clean," 
and  even  then  a  failure  may  occur  and  change  an  antici- 


SPECULATION  65 

pated  profit  into  a  fifty  per  cent.  loss.  Collectors  who 
spend  many  months  in  procuring  by  barter  and  purchase 
large  lots  of  skins  to  be  offered  at  Russian  fairs,  shippers 
who  devote  a  few  weeks  or  months  to  the  collection  of 
peltries  to  be  sold  to  highest  bidders  at  public  sales, 
and  fur  merchants  who  purchase  supplies  of  raw  furs 
C.  O.  D.  from  trappers  and  small  dealers — none  of 
these  buyers  know  a  moment  in  advance  of  the  com- 
pleted transaction  the  amount  that  will  be  realized  on 
their  respective  ventures. 

If  all  these  chances  could  be  eliminated,  the  raw 
fur  business  would  lose  very  much  of  its  present  interest 
for  a  majority  of  the  traders,  and  all  of  its  attraction 
to  many. 

The  chance  that  always  "looks  good"  constantly 
irradiates  the  eagerly  awaited  "next  time."  Specula- 
tion is  indeed  the  animating  spirit  of  the  fur  trade  in 
all  departments,  beginning  with  the  boy  who  enthus- 
iastically hopes  to  catch  a  ten-dollar  mink  in  a  section 
never  visited  by  an  animal  more  valuable  than  a  twenty- 
cent  opossum;  and  running  on  to  the  would-be  furrier 
who  is  ever  ready  to  "take  a  chance"  with  inadequate 
capital,  or  credit  granted  by  speculative  creditors. 

Some  fur  speculators  are  firm  believers  in  luck; 
others  take  a  chance  anyway.    Some  years  since  one  of 


(W) 


66  SPECULATION 

the  first  class  was  run  down  by  a  trolley  car;  he  was 
taken  up  and  carried  to  the  police  station,  and  in  his 
card  case  the  sergeant  found  ten  specimens  of  four- 
leaved  clover,  kept  as  good  luck  emblems ;  when  he  came 
to  an  officer  asked  him  if  he  did  not  see  the  approaching 
trolley  car,  and  he  mildly  murmured:  "Ko,  sir;  I  was 
looking  over  my  left  shoulder  at  the  new  moon  for 
good  luck." 

In  March,  1896,  Herman  Liebes  made  a  wager  of 
five  hundred  dollars  with  P.  M.  Grunwaldt,  of  Paris, 
that  the  total  fur  seal  catch  for  the  year  would  be  less 
than  7,500  Alaska,  10,000  Copper  Island  and  60,000 
Northwest  Coast  skins.  The  catch  for  the  year  was  as 
follows:  Alaska,  30,000;  Copper  Island,  14,418;  North- 
west Coast,  55,000  skins.  The  wager  embraced  all 
three,  so  neither  won. 

Competition  remains;  the  law  of  supply  and  de- 
mand may  seem  to  govern  market  prices,  but  it  does  not 
dominate  speculation.  Organization,  pooling  of  capital, 
and  public  sales  here  and  there  on  fixed  dates,  are  all 
again  being  tried  out,  and  not  a  few  entertain  the  fond 
hope  that  the  almighty  dollar  multiplied  to  the  seventh 
power  will  evolve  monopoly.  These  are  reminded  that 
"history  repeats  itself,"  not  in  certain  particulars  only, 
but  in  detail.  Monopoly  in  furs  is  unattainable;  the 
forces  that  make  for  it  are  self  destructive. 


Some  of  the  long  settled  methods  prevailing  in  the 
conduct  of  the  fur  business  are  peculiar. 

Raw  furs  collected  in  practically  all  places  of  pro- 
duction are  systematically  forwarded  to  certain  centers 
year  after  year,  noticeably  to  general  fairs  in  Russia, 
trading  markets  in  China  and  London,  to  be  bartered 
or  exchanged  for  other  commodities  or  cash;  prior  to 
1 9 14  considerable  supplies  of  American,  Russian  and 
Asiatic  furs  were  similarly  sent  to  Leipzig,  Germany, 
to  be  sold  to  visiting  buyers  from  all  consuming 
countries. 

American,  Russian  and  other  furs  forwarded  to 
London  public  sales  in  years  agone  were  quite  regularly 
purchased  by  Leipzig  houses  and  taken  to  the  latter 
city  to  be  sold  to  firms  in  New  York,  Moscow  and  other 
cities — sources  of  origin.  Some  of  the  skins  purchased 
for  Leipzig  account  were  dressed  and  dyed  at  that  place, 
and  then  sold  to  merchants  in  the  cotmtries  from  which 
the  pelts  were  first  sent  roaming. 

As  a  rule  fur  merchants  operate  more  readily  in  a 
rising  than  in  a  declining  market,  as  the  initial  increase 
in  values,  unless  unreasonably  sudden  and  extreme,  is 
believed  to  pressage  an  advancing  period.  Manufactur- 
ers very  often  regard  the  matter  differently — if  values 
decline  they  confidently  await  still  greater  reductions; 
and  if  prices  rather  sharply  rise  at  the  first  public  sale 
of  the  year,  they  refrain  from  buying  in  the  expressed 
hope  that  lower  values  will  prevail  later — delight  and 
disappointment  alternate  as  the  years  come  and  go. 
The  actual  market  value  of  most  raw  skins  is  a 

67 


68  METHODS 

matter  of  considerable  uncertainty  from  the  beginning 
of  the  season  of  collection  to  the  instant  of  recording 
the  final  bid  for  each  article,  and  even  then,  as  various 
classes  of  skins  are  offered  in  many  small  lots  of  differ- 
ent quality,  the  average  price,  profit  or  loss,  on  the  entire 
offering  of  the  individual  speculator,  remain  in  doubt 
until  laboriously  computed. 

The  value  thus  ascertained  only  serves  as  a  basis 
for  new  operations  in  the  field  until  the  close  of  the 
ensuing  public  sale,  when  higher  or  lower  prices  are  in 
turn  established. 

Shippers,  importers  and  manufacturers  at  times 
claim  to  possess  important  information  respecting  future 
supplies,  values  and  fashions,  but  expectations  built 
upon  such  assumptions,  like  other  dreams,  are  realized 
about  "once  in  a  blue  moon";  the  fact  is,  no  one  can 
surely  know  any  of  these  things  as  they  persistently 
pertain  to  the  impenetrable  mysteries  of  the  morrow, 
which  can  never  be  solved  owing  to  the  ceaseless  rotation 
of  Mother  Earth. 

The  methods  peculiar  to  the  trade,  prevailing  for 
generations,  have  long  been  regarded  as  being  quite  as 
firmly  established  as  the  ancient  laws  of  the  Medes  and 
Persian,  which  neither  king  nor  court  might  alter  under 
any  conditions,  but  there  are  indications  that  essential 
and  desirable  changes  in  fur  trade  customs  will  be  em- 
braced among  the  startling  surprises  thronging  the  new 
era  of  peace  succeeding  the  world's  most  wanton  war. 


TOTTIE    IN    FUR 


i^eto  Honbon 

Only  those  who  have  "gone  down  to  the  sea  in 
ships,"  or  a  very  small  number  of  men  who  have  had 
dealings  with  "old  salts,"  are  aware  that  for  many  de- 
cades New  London,  Connecticut,  was  a  port  of  entry 
for  sailing  vessels  laden  in  part  with  furs  and  skins 
from  the  far  north,  the  North  and  South  Pacific  Oceans, 
Bering  Sea  and  the  icy  waters  around  the  Poles.  The 
receipt  of  raw  furs  at  New  London  dates  from  the  early 
years  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  time  of  the  return 
voyage  of  the  first  whaling  vessel  that  sailed  from  that 
place.  New  London  was  founded  in  1644;  it  has  one  of 
the  best  harbors  in  the  United  States,  and  on  account 
of  that  fact  was  chosen  as  their  base  by  the  first  whalers, 
and  so  remained  until  increasing  competition  and  a 

69 


70  NEW  LONDON 

greatly  reduced  catch  seriously  diminished  profits. 
The  fur  part  of  the  industry  was  at  first  incidental, 
the  amount  of  fur  secured  on  each  voyage  being  de- 
pendent upon  circumstances;  when  a  whaling  vessel  in 
the  course  of  its  Arctic  journey  was  caught  in  the  ice 
and  imprisoned  for  several  months,  members  of  the  crew 
spent  the  days  in  hunting  game,  particularly  reindeer 
and  musk  oxen,  to  supply  the  ship's  larder  with  fresh 
meat;  during  these  hunting  expeditions  over  the  great 
ice  fields  the  sailors  shot  everything  coming  or  brought 
within  range  of  their  guns,  and  in  the  course  of  the 
long  winters  captured  a  fair  number  of  fine  foxes,  hair 
seals  and  a  few  polar  bears;  some  years  the  ships  win- 
tered near  an  esquimau  settlement,  and  larger  supplies 
of  peltries  were  obtained  by  barter. 

In  later  years  increased  attention  was  given  to  the 
capture  of  fur  seals,  particularly  by  the  Williams  family, 
descendents  of  Roger  Williams,  who  for  several  genera- 
tions were  large  owners  of  whaling  vessels.  The  latest 
member  of  the  family  so  engaged  was  A.  C.  Williams, 
in  succession  to  his  father,  grandfather  and  great  grand- 
father. A.  C.  Williams  operated  a  number  of  vessels 
in  whaling  and  sealing  from  1848  to  1895,  and  during 
that  time  his  vessels  landed  many  fur  seal  skins  and 
sundry  furs  at  New  London.  In  instances  some  of  his 
vessels  were  engaged  in  taking  seals  exclusively,  the 
voyages  extending  to  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Sandwich- 
land,  South  Shetland  and  South  Georgia  Islands,  and 
other  points.  Fur  seals  were  practically  exterminated 
on  the  South  Shetland  Islands  in  1821-1825,  none  being 
found  there  by  later  visitors;  in  1870-1877  Mr.  Williams 
sent  a  vessel  to  the  South  Shetlands  and  in  the  course 


NEW  LONDON  W 

of  the  six  years  secured  about  forty  thousand  seal  skins, 
all  of  fine  quality,  and  the  last  large  lot  of  the  Shetlands. 

A  vessel,  sailing  from  another  Connecticut  port  in 
1888  returned  with  only  thirty-nine  skins;  and  one  of 
Mr.  Williams'  ships  returned  the  same  season  with 
sixty-nine  skins,  including  skins  of  eleven  pups,  all  that 
could  be  found. 

New  London  continues  to  be  the  port  of  entry  for 
whaling  vessels  returning  now  and  then  from  the  Arctic 
with  cargoes  of  oil,  baleen,  ivory,  polar  bear  and  fox 
skins,  but  the  catch  of  fur  is  never  too  large  to  be  taken 
up  without  comment  by  a  single  buyer. 

FLAG  ON    SEAL   ISLANDS 

Charles  A.  Williams,  born  in  New  London,  Con- 
necticut, 1829,  was  for  many  years  actively  engaged 
in  the  capture  of  whales  and  the  collection  of  fine 
raw  furs  in  Arctic  regions.  When  the  United  States 
purchased  Alaska  in  1867  Mr.  Williams  very  prompt- 
ly sailed  for  Bering  Sea  in  one  of  his  whaling  vessels, 
and  preceded  even  the  government  in  raising  the 
American  flag  on  St.  Paul  Island;  in  1868  he  made  a 
rich  capture  of  Alaska  fur  seal  skins,  and  brought 
them  safely  to  port. 

Mr.  Williams  died  January  i,  1890. 


Betrott 

Detroit  was  settled  by  the  French  in  1701,  and 
was  an  excellent  fur  trading  center  on  account  of  its 
proximity  to  Canada,  and  the  fact  that  the  furs  col- 
lected were  of  good  quality.  The  settlement  was 
taken  by  the  English  in  1763,  and  as  the  result  of  the 
Revolutionary  War  became  American  territory  sev- 
enty-four years  later.  In  the  early  days  raw  furs 
were  received  at  Detroit  in  good  supply,  being 
brought  forward  by  Indians,  French  trappers  and 
traders,  and  in  succession  by  English  and  American 
collectors;  the  furs  were  of  excellent  quality,  were 
well  handled,  and  the  merchants  at  Detroit  enjoyed  a 
high  reputation  for  ability  and  integrity — conditions 
which  have  continuously  characterized  that  market. 

Furs  were  shipped  from  Detroit  to  Montreal, 
Albany  and  New  York;  transactions  at  the  present 
time  embrace  a  very  much  larger  field,  both  as  regards 
receipts  and  shipments,  covering  the  country  and 
extending  across  the  mighty  deep. 

Frederick  Buhl  conducted  a  successful  wholesale 
fur  and  hat  business  in  Detroit  from  1833  to  1887, 
when  he  sold  the  business  to  his  son,  Walter  Buhl. 

Frederick  Buhl  was  not  only  a  progressive  mer- 
chant, but  was  extremely  public  spirited.  He  was 
Mayor  of  Detroit  in  1848;  was  for  years  president  of 
the  Fort  Wayne  &  Elmwood  Railway  Company; 
director  of  the  State  Bank,  Second  National  Bank, 
the  Board  of  Trade  and  the  Merchants  Exchange. 

Traugott  Schmidt  established  in  the  raw  fur 
business  at  Detroit  in  1853  in  a  moderate  way,  and  by 

72 


DETROIT  73 

rigid  honesty,  and  strictly  fair  dealing  with  all  his 
shippers  from  least  to  greatest,  steadily  enlarged  his 
business.  His  trade  relations  gradually  extended  to 
all  parts  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  with  con- 
stantly expanding  exports  to  Europe.  He  enjoyed 
an  enviable  reputation  for  unqualified  integrity,  and 
his  word  was  accepted  without  question,  both  at  home 
and  abroad.  On  December  i,  1889,  he  admitted  his 
sons  to  the  business,  under  style  Traugott  Schmidt 
&  Sons;  the  business  was  then  incorporated,  the  offi- 
cers being:  Traugott  Schmidt,  president;  Carl  E. 
Schmidt,  secretary;  Edward  J.  Schmidt,  treasurer. 

Mr.  Traugott  Schmidt  died  May  19,  1897,  on  the 
steamship  "Trave,"  upon  which  he  was  returning  to 
America  from  a  visit  to  Bremen;  he  was  sixty-seven 
years  of  age. 

Mark  Sloman  engaged  in  the  raw  fur  business 
at  Detroit  in  1876,  and  achieved  marked  success  as  the 
due  reward  of  untiring  industry,  the  highest  order  of 
business  ability  and  fidelity.  The  house  deals  with 
trappers  and  collectors,  from  the  least  in  volume  to 
the  greatest,  receiving  a  great  number  of  shipments 
in  the  season  from  every  "nook  and  corner"  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada,  aggregating  many  thou- 
sands of  dollars  in  value.  They  have  for  years  main- 
tained very  important  connections  abroad,  and  their 
standing  is  of  the  highest  in  all  foreign  markets. 
They  have  occupied  their  own  building.  Congress 
Street,  West,  since  January,  1910.  Mark  Sloman, 
founder  of  the  house,  died  November  24,  1908.  He 
was  born  June  11,  1833  at  Schoensee,  Prussia. 

Henry  A.  Newland  established  in  the  fur  busi- 


74  DETROIT 

ness  at  Detroit  in  1880,  and  his  house  occupied  a 
leading  position,  and  a  high  reputation,  for  more  than 
a  quarter  of  a  century;  previously,  from  1855  to  1880, 
Mr.  Newland  was  a  member  of  the  firm  of  F.  Buhl, 
Newland  &  Company. 

Mr.  Newland  met  his  death  in  a  railway  collision 
at  Bellevue,  Michigan,  on  September  2^,  1893. 

Newton  Annis,  of  Detroit,  really  grew  up  in  the 
fur  business,  for  during  his  school  boy  days  he  spent 
a  considerable  part  of  his  vacation  time  in  the  fall  of 
each  year  buying  raw  furs  from  trappers  in  Southern 
Michigan,  and  selling  the  goods  to  dealers  in  Detroit. 
When  he  left  school  he  was  engaged  by  Buhl,  New- 
land  &  Company  as  a  traveling  fur  buyer,  and  in  1883 
was  placed  in  charge  of  the  fur  manufacturing  depart- 
ment of  that  house. 

In  1887  he  began  manufacturing  on  his  own  ac- 
count at  wholesale,  but  in  a  small  way;  in  1902  he 
occupied  an  entire  building,  and  employed  more  than 
three  hundred  operators,  and  had  an  important 
branch  in  New  York. 

Edwin  S.  George  and  Otto  Hartmann,  under  style, 
Hartmann  &  George,  engaged  in  business,  succeeding 
De  Steiger  &  George,  manufacturing  furriers. 

On  January  17,  1900,  Edwin  S.  George  purchased 
his  partner's  interest,  and  continued  the  business 
alone.  In  September  of  that  year  Mr.  George  bought 
the  stock  and  good  will  of  the  fur  business,  dating 
from  1833,  of  Walter  Buhl  &  Company.  In  January, 
1901,  Mr.  George  bought  up  a  raw  fur  business  in  New 
York,  which  he  retained  until  December,  1902. 

In  December,  1909,  the  Detroit  business  was  in- 


DETROIT 


75 


corporated,  under  style  The  House  of  George,  the 
founder  retiring  to  give  his  attention  to  other  import- 
ant interests. 

F.  H.  Rollins  succeeded  to  the  business  as 
Rollins  Company,  in  191 5. 

Theodore  C.  Mau,  who  for  twelve  years  was  fore- 
man of  the  fur  manufacturing  department  of  Henry, 
A.  Newland  &  Company,  Detroit,  established  on  his  own 
account  in  March  1899,  and  has  since  continued  to 
rank  as  one  of  the  leading  furriers  in  that  very  beauti- 
ful and  prosperous  city. 


St.  Louis,  Missouri,  named  by  French  traders  in 
honor  of  Louis  XV  of  France,  was  indicated  on  the 
maps  as  a  small  fur  trading  post  in  1763  by  Laclede, 
the  leading  member  of  an  association  of  merchants 
organized  at  New  Orleans  a  year  earlier,  and  was 
made  the  headquarters  for  the  receipt  of  collections 
to  be  sent  down  the  river  to  New  Orleans,  or  across 
to  Lake  Michigan  and  Mackinaw  and  thence  over  the 
lakes  and  up  the  St.  Lawrence  River  to  Quebec  for 
shipment  to  London. 

The  site  was  chosen  as  a  specially  desirable  loca- 
tion for  conducting  an  extensive  trade  with  the  In- 
dians, who  carried  upon  their  backs  in  packs  the  pel- 
tries secured  at  interior  trapping  grounds  to  conveni- 
ent places  along  the  rivers,  and  thence  by  canoes  to 
St.  Louis.  There  were  many  Indians  in  the  vicinity, 
the  surrounding  unexplored  wilds  being  generally 
known  as  the  ''Indian  Country;"  passing  westward 
to  near  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  Southward  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  country  was  officially  designated 
as  "New  France." 

76 


SAINT   LOUIS  77 

Owing  to  its  many  natural  advantages  in  loca- 
tion the  post  rapidly  increased  in  importance;  hun- 
dreds of  Indians,  half-breeds  and  hardy  voyageurs 
traced  their  way  thither,  and  for  several  years  it  was 
their  preferred  trading  station.  Many  of  these  sturdy, 
blustering  fur  hunters,  trappers  and  traders  made 
St.  Louis  their  headquarters,  their  ''home  town,"  as 
it  were,  passing  much  of  their  time  there,  in  fact, 
most  of  the  days  between  trapping  seasons;  they 
spent  their  money  or  credits  freely  until  the  last 
penny  was  gone,  and  in  instances  until  the  catch  yet 
to  be  made  was  heavily  mortgaged;  not  a  difficult 
matter  when  it  is  noted  that  whiskey  cost  them  ten 
dollars  a  bottle,  and  powder  a  beaver  skin  or  more 
per  pound.  Some  latter  day  banqueters  upon  the 
same  area  have  sipped  champagne,  supplied  by  their 
hosts,  at  a  cost  somewhere  near  three  dollars  a  quart, 
and  have  considered  themselves  "great  sports" — great, 
is  a  relative  term. 

The  Indians,  half-breeds,  voyageurs  and  back- 
woodsmen who  sojourned  on  off-duty  days  at  St. 
Louis,  wore  the  brightest  togs  they  could  afford, 
toted  tomahawks  and  guns  and  vicious  blades,  swag- 
gered up  and  down  the  by-ways  as  men  of  invincible 
valor  born  to  be  admired,  and  were  proud  and  guileful 
as  Lucifer. 

Many  of  these  doughty  trappers,  hunters  and 
waterway  wanderers,  lingered  at  the  Post  long  past 
the  date  when  they  should  have  been  busy  on  their 
trap  lines  many  miles  distant  in  the  wilderness ;  as  the 
seasons  succeeded  one  another  these  particular  trap- 
pers lost  much  of  their  early  interest  in  fur,  and  ceased 


78  SAINT   LOUIS 

to  hope  that  the  success  of  the  morrow  would  greatly 
surpass  the  realization  of  previous  days — that  a  valu- 
able beaver  or  a  priceless  black  fox  would  be  found 
imprisoned  in  traps  set  in  marshes  where  only  musk- 
rat  signs  abounded ;  these  voyageurs  trapped  for  gain, 
not  in  the  love  of  it,  and  therefore  delayed  their  de- 
parture, when  not  earlier  engaged,  in  the  hope  of 
being  employed  for  the  season  by  some  individual  or 
concern  fitting  out  a  trapping  and  hunting  expedition 
at  the  "last  moment."  Independent  traders,  and  more 
generally  trading  organizations,  regularly  raised 
small  armies  of  men  at  St.  Louis,  and  sent  them  out 
into  the  woods  to  hunt  and  trap  from  early  autumn 
until  mid-summer  in  the  following  year,  the  whites 
and  half-breeds  joining  these  armies  were  too  proud 
to  be  hired  to  work  or  trap,  but  were  quite  willing  to 
"enlist,"  though  the  terms  of  enlistment  imposed  the 
duty  of  serving  under  the  absolute  command  of  a 
leader — the  salary  paid  to  an  enlisted  man  of  the  first 
class  was  three  hundred  dollars  a  year.  Occasionally 
an  army  met  with  defeat,  that  is  returned  to  camp  at 
the  end  of  the  season  with  a  catch  of  fur  worth  "next 
to  nothing"  as  the  result  of  encountering  too  much 
snow  and  ice,  Indian  troubles,  or  operating  in  terri- 
tory which  had  been  "trapped  to  death"  the  previous 
year;  but  the  trader  who  kept  at  it  for  a  little  while 
usually  retired  with  a  robust  roll,  and  thereafter  dwelt 
in  marble  halls,  while  the  trapper  remained  in  the  field 
to  annually  enlist,  if  lucky,  at  three  hundred  dollars 
for  twelve  months.  Time  has  wrought  many  mighty 
changes,  but  to  this  day  many  traders  and  trappers 


SAINT   LOUIS  79 

present  no  visible  evidence  of  having  felt  its  trans- 
forming touch. 

It  was  not  always  an  easy  matter  to  induce  some 
of  the  proudest  white  and  half-breed  hunters  and  trap- 
pers to  enlist,  particularly  at  an  advance  date;  they 
held  out,  not  so  much  for  more  pay  as  for  recognition 
of  their  importance,  and  had  to  be  urged,  importuned, 
and  in  instances  diplomatically  influenced;  and  even 
at  the  last  moment  might  whimsically  throw  up  one 
engagement  and  disappear  with  another  army, 
though  gaining  no  personal  advantage  by  the  change. 
The  Pacific  Fur  Company  in  1809  enlisted  part  of  its 
field  force  at  St.  Louis  under  the  leadership  of  Wilson 
P.  Hunt;  the  men  engaged  included  Indian  guides, 
voyageurs,  and  experienced  half-breed  trappers ;  some 
of  these  volunteers  were  easily  engaged,  and  as  read- 
ily deserted  before  the  expedition  was  ready  to  move, 
and  great  difficulty  was  experienced  in  inducing 
others  to  replace  them;  offers  of  good  pay,  though  the 
company  was  known  to  be  perfectly  trustworthy,  had 
no  effect;  influence,  tested  to  the  limit,  was  of  no 
avail;  diplomacy  finally  won.  The  men  wanted  were 
passionately  fond  of  finery,  high  colored  clothes  and 
particularly  feathers.  Primitive  men,  not  a  whit  less 
than  women,  proudly  donned  showy  or  distinctive  at- 
tire; and  modern  masculines  delight  in  conspicuous 
decorations — note  the  feathered  head-dress  of  North 
American  Indian  braves;  tiger  and  leopard  skins 
worn  by  African  hunters;  the  gilded  regalia  affected 
by  secret  organizations;  the  feather  burdened  head 
gear  of  the  Italian  Carbineri;  and  medals  covering 
every  inch  of  the  frontal  anatomy  of  members  of 


80  SAINT   LOUIS 

Schutzenfest  Societies.  The  man  of  today  who  mildly 
scoffs  at  the  weakness  of  his  aboriginal  brother,  wears 
a  flower  in  the  button  hole  of  his  coat  quite  uncon- 
scious that  the  habit  is  only  a  survival  of  the  trait  he 
abjures.  Mr.  Hunt  had  in  his  treasury  a  number  of 
small  ostrich  plumes ;  one  of  these  was  given  to  a  con- 
fidant, who  was  instructed  to  place  it  in  his  hat  band 
and  wear  it  upon  the  streets  of  the  town  continuously 
until  every  one  in  the  place  should  see  it.  The  effect 
measured  up  to  Mr.  Hunt's  expectations;  every  hun- 
ter and  trapper,  white  and  half-breed,  was  eager  to  ob- 
tain one  of  the  plumes,  but  was  quietly  informed  that 
it  was  the  emblem  of  the  Pacific  Fur  Company  and 
could  be  procured  and  worn  only  by  men  enlisted  in 
the  service  of  that  organization;  there  was  a  rush  to 
enlist,  and  Mr.  Hunt  quickly  recruited  his  army, 
choosing  the  best  hunters  and  trappers  in  the  town. 
The  day  of  the  ostrich  plume  has  passed,  but  human 
nature  is  still  perceivably  what  it  was  in  1809,  with 
the  exception  that  the  dollar  is  now  more  potent  than 
the  plume;  wanted  furs  are  at  present  garnered  with 
price  lists  in  which  a  little  "taffy"  and  very  high  quo- 
tations are  shrewdly  mingled.  Beads  and  trinkets, 
were  not  wholly  superceded  as  current  funds  at  the 
Post  until  near  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
Wilson  Price  Hunt  was  an  upright  merchant  and 
for  a  considerable  period  before  becoming  a  member 
of  the  Pacific  Fur  Company,  which  operated  farther 
west,  had  large  dealings  with  the  Indians  at  St.  Louis, 
furnishing  them  with  blankets  and  other  necessary 
articles  in  exchange  for  peltries,  which  he  shipped  to 
New  York. 


SAINT   LOUIS  81 

Ramsey  Crooks,  a  sturdy,  honest,  industrious 
Scotchman,  who  had  been  with  the  Northwest  Com- 
pany of  Canada  for  some  years  withdrew  at  Mack- 
inaw in  August,  1809,  and  journied  thence  to  St. 
Louis,  where  he  arrived  early  in  the  following  month 
and  enlisted  in  the  Pacific  Fur  Company,  and  soon 
became  a  partner. 

The  Missouri  Fur  Company  was  organized  at  St. 
Louis  in  1807  with  twelve  members,  Manuel  Lisa  be- 
ing the  chief  partner;  the  concern  received  large  col- 
lections of  peltries  from  visiting  Indians  and  back- 
woodsmen; and  as  trade  increased  it  very  considerably 
extended  its  operations,  establishing  trading  posts  along 
the  Missouri  River,  and  at  numerous  points  in  the  in- 
terior, and  westward  as  far  as  Oregon ;  the  latter,  how- 
ever, were  retained  only  for  a  short  time.  The  Missouri 
Fur  Company  employed  many  hunters,  trappers  and 
voyageurs,  and  sent  out  some  strong  expeditions;  the 
concern  was  aggressive,  waged  the  sharpest  kind  of 
competition  with  other  organizations,  individual  hunters 
and  trappers,  and  by  every  method  known  to  traders 
of  the  time  sought  to  control  the  entire  fur  trade  of 
the  country;  but  like  its  predecessors  failed  to  ac- 
complish the  impossible,  just  as  their  successors  have 
failed  and  will  fail  to  the  end. 

Joseph  Miller,  who  was  at  St.  Louis,  joined  the 
Pacific  Fur  Company  in  1810,  and  in  spite  of  the  opposi- 
tion of  the  Missouri  Fur  Company,  succeeded  in  lead- 
ing out  a  large  expedition  composed  of  the  most  pro- 
ficient hunters  and  trappers  in  that  section.  One  in- 
terpreter, who  had  served  his  year  with  the  Missouri 
Fur  Company,  had  a  hard  time  getting  away;  he  owed 


83  SAINT   LOUIS 

the  concern  about  three  hundred  dollars  for  personally 
imbibed  whiskey  at  ten  dollars  per  bottle,  and  a  warrant 
was  issued  for  his  arrest  to  effect  his  detention,  but  the 
Pacific  Fur  Company  settled  the  debt,  a  year's  salary 
in  advance,  and  the  half-breed  linguist  was  carried  off 
in  triumph.  It  is  asserted  that  he  "somehow"  managed 
to  speak  half  a  dozen  or  more  Indian  dialects  fluently — 
perhaps  it  should  be  written  fluidly — while  heavily  laden 
with  1 8 10  whiskey. 

How  he  accomplished  the  feat  is  not  explained; 
neither  are  we  told  why  two  high  and  honorable  com- 
panies of  Christian  men  were  reduced  to  the  necessity 
of  employing  a  biped,  who  needed  to  consume  a  dollar's 
worth  of  whiskey  per  day  to  enable  him  to  translate 
Sioux  into  English  and  vice  versa. 

Considerable  collections  of  peltries  were  secured 
in  the  country  around  Fort  Laramie,  and  at  numerous 
interior  points  along  the  Platte,  Missouri  and  other 
rivers,  which  in  the  early  summer  were  shipped  by  boat 
and  overland  to  St.  Louis,  and  thence  eastward  to  the 
Atlantic  coast  for  domestic  consumption  and  export. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  William 
H.  Ashley,  who  had  a  large  warehouse  within  the  limits 
of  the  present  city  of  St.  Louis,  bought  and  sold  raw 
furs,  and  employed  men  to  trap  fur-bearers  in  the  nearby 
marshes  and  woods.  One  of  these  trappers,  William 
Sublette  succeeded  W.  H.  Ashley  in  1830,  and  in  that 
year  organized  the  Rocky  Mountain  Fur  Company, 
which  carried  on  a  successful  raw  fur  business  at  St. 
Louis  for  several  years. 

The  Rocky  Mountain  Fur  Company  built  a  fort  at 
the  Laramie  fork  of  the  Platte  River,  naming  it  Fort 


SAINT  LOUIS  88 

William ;  when  the  company  dissolved  the  fort  was  sold 
to  the  government,  and  the  name  was  changed  to  Fort 
Laramie. 

For  somewhat  more  than  twenty  years  from  1790 
the  annual  collection  of  peltries  at  St.  Louis  averaged 
over  $200,000 ;  for  a  considerable  period  deer  skins  were 
of  leading  importance,  and  were  handled  in  immense 
number;  shaved  deer  skins  were  the  standard  medium 
of  exchange. 

From  1 8 10  to  1850  the  value  of  the  animal  collec- 
tion received  at  St.  Louis  exceeded  $300,000,  and  in- 
cluded beaver,  mink,  otter,  fox,  raccoon  and  all  other 
fur  skins.  Receipts  have  materially  increased  during 
the  past  quarter  of  a  century,  and  very  great  progress 
has  been  made  in  trade  methods. 


B.  Harris  has  for  a  generation  been  an  active 
dealer  in  raw  furs  at  St.  Louis,  and  is  well  known  as 
one  of  the  most  progressive  members  of  the  trade, 
which  is  largely  indebted  to  him  for  its  present  progress, 
and  manifest  improvement  in  many  essential  details. 

For  the  past  ten  years  the  business  has  been  con- 
ducted under  style:  B.  Harris  Wool  Company;  though 
the  title  does  not  express  it,  no  house  in  the  city  deals 
more  largely  in  raw  furs,  or  is  better  known  in  that  con- 
nection; the  concern  handles  immense  quantities  of 
opossum,  muskrat  and  other  skins,  and  is  at  all  times 
in  a  position  to  meet  special  and  extreme  demands. 

The  house  is  of  leading  rank  in  the  wool  trade;  its 
purchases  embrace  entire  clips  of  a  section,  whether 
thousands  or  millions  of  pounds. 

Funsten  Brothers  &  Company  began  business  as 


84  SAINT   LOUIS 

fur  commission  merchants  at  St.  Louis  in  1881,  and  so 
continued  until  1893,  when  the  firm  incorporated  with- 
out change  of  name;  the  officers  are:  Philip  B.  Fouke, 
president;  Albert  M.  Ahern,  vice-president  and  treas- 
urer; D.  J.  Walley,  secretary.  J.  J.  Funsten  died  in 
1892.  R.  E.  Funsten  retired  in  1897,  ^1^^  ^-  ^-  Funsten 
in  1907. 

The  corporation  receives  raw  furs  from  trappers 
throughout  North  America;  the  skins  so  received  are 
disposed  of  by  sealed  bids  at  tri-weekly  sales,  the  bidders 
being  dealers  engaged  in  the  trade  at  St.  Louis ;  dealers 
purchasing  the  goods  sell  them  to  fur  merchants  in 
manufacturing  centers,  and  at  times  ship  part  of  the 
supply  to  the  London  auctions. 

In  19 1 3  the  corporation  sold  at  auction  1.898  fur 
seal  skins,  property  of  the  United  States  Government, 
the  product  of  the  seals  killed  for  food  by  the  Aleuts 
on  St.  Paul  and  St.  George  Islands;  in  1916  the  concern 
established  at  St.  Louis  a  plant  for  dressing  and  dyeing 
seal  skins  by  the  London  process. 

Since  191 5  the  corporation  has  conducted  public 
auction  sales  of  raw  furs,  scheduled  to  be  held  three 
times  a  year,  in  January,  March  and  September. 

Leonhard;  Roos,  born  in  Lahr,  Germany,  1833, 
accompanied  his  parents  to  America  in  1848.  He  was 
first  employed  in  New  York,  and  continued  steadily  at 
work  until  the  break  came  between  North  and  South, 
when  he  enlisted  in  a  New  York  regiment  and  served 
throughout  the  war. 

In  1867  he  went  to  St.  Louis  and  established  a  man- 
ufacturing and  retail  fur  business,  which  in  a  brief 
time  took  leading  place  in  that  branch  of  the  local  trade. 


SAINT   LOUIS  88 

In  1887  the  business  was  converted  into  a  stock  com- 
pany, Leonhard  Roos  president,  and  his  nqphew,  Charles 
A.  Leppert  vice-president  and  general  manager. 

In  October,  1900,  Mr.  Roos  died  while  on  a  visit 
to  his  native  town ;  since  that  time  Mr.  Leppert  has  been 
the  head  of  the  house,  the  present  name  being  Leppert- 
Roos  Fur  Company. 

A  large  part  of  the  raw  fur  business  at  St.  Louis 
is  transacted  through  brokers,  who  have  mercantile 
relations  with  all  parts  of  the  country. 

Albert  Schott  &  Son  Fur  Brokerage  Company  con- 
ducts a  business  dating  back  to  1880,  during  which  long 
term  many  firms  have  come  and  gone,  and  great  changes 
in  methods  have  been  effected. 

The  company  has  clients  in  all  cities  of  North 
America  where  furs  are  dealt  in  or  largely  manufac- 
tured, and  also  important  foreign  accounts. 

Isaac  A.  Schoen  has  conducted  a  raw  fur  brokerage 
business  in  St.  Louis  for  a  quarter  of  a  century,  and 
each  year  has  been  written  over  with  a  record  of  which 


86  SAINT   LOUIS 

any  man  might  well  be  proud;  in  every  transaction  he 
regards  the  interests  of  his  client  as  paramount;  he 
has  repeatedly  refrained  from  executing  orders,  dis- 
regarding his  own  share  in  the  transactions,  because  he 
considered  the  price  unfavorable  to  his  principals.  Upon 
more  than  one  occasion  Mr.  Schoen  has  achieved  phe- 
nominal  personal  success  in  wheat,  but  he  has  never 
taken  a  chance  in  buying  fur  for  a  client. 

John  J.  Goge  was  born  into  the  fur  business,  his 
father  having  for  many  years  been  a  well  known  furrier 
in  New  York. 

Mr.  Goge  entered  the  fur  trade  at  St.  Louis  as  a 
broker  in  1905,  and  has  won  the  esteem  of  the  firms  in 
that  city,  and  the  merchants  and  manufacturers  upon 
whose  account  he  has  continuously  operated. 

We  have  a  raw  fur  price  list,  size  of  letter-head, 
blank  on  one  side,  issued  January  11,  1879,  by  Lapham 
&  Company,  222  North  Main  Street,  St.  Louis,  all  the 
furs  quoted  were : 

Mink  No.  i,  large,  40  cents. 

Raccoon  No.  i,  60  cents. 

Muskrat,  winter,  12  cents. 

Skunk,  black,  prime,  cased,  $1.25. 

Wild  cat,  10  to  25  cents. 

Opossum,  5  to  7  cents. 

Wolf,  prairie,  85  cents. 

Beaver,  large  and  prime,  $2.50. 

Marten,  large  and  dark,  $5.00. 

Red  fox,  75  cents. 

Gray  fox,  $1.00. 

Bear,  black,  $5.00;  cubs,  $1.00  to  $3.00. 

The  firm  of  Lapham  &  Company  was  established  at 


MISSISSIPPI    STBAMBR    1850 


St.  Louis  in  1878  by  members  of  the  well-known  Lap- 
ham  family,  leather  merchants  of  New  York.  Lapham 
&  Company  were  succeeded  by  Lapham,  Brooks  &  Com- 
pany, who  in  turn  were  succeeded  in  1906  by  the  well- 
known  firm  of  J.  C.  Crowdus  &  Company,  and  19 17  by 
the  corporation:  J.  C.  Crowdus  Hides,  Furs  and  Wool 
Company. 

Canoes  were  the  first  vessels  engaged  in  transport- 
ing furs  over  the  rushing  Mississippi  River.  Later  keel 
boats  propelled  or  pushed  along  by  strong  poles  were 
engaged  in  carrying  raw  furs  from  New  Orleans  to  St. 
Louis  on  their  way  east;  it  required  four  months  for 
the  keel  boats  to  travel  the  fifteen  hundred  miles  between 
the  two  cities.  As  the  fur  collections  increased  P.  Chou- 
teau used  steamers  for  transporting  the  baled  peltries. 

In  181 5  a  steamer  was  built  which  made  the  trip  in 
twenty-five  days;  in  1850  the  steamer  shown  was  placed 
on  the  rivers  and  completed  the  trip  in  three  days. 


87 


&m  jFrancisco 


Yuba  Buena,  occupying  a  part  of  the  present  city 
of  San  Francisco,  California,  was  settled  by  Spanish 
missionaries  to  the  Indians  in  1776,  and  a  little  later 
Spanish  merchants  followed  and  opened  a  trading  center 
for  general  barter  with  the  natives  from  whom  they 
received  in  a  single  season  more  sea  otter  skins  than 
can  now  be  obtained  from  all  known  sources  of  supply 
in  a  decade.  Collections  of  raw  furs  also  included 
coast  seal,  fox,  beaver  and  other  skins,  all  of  which  were 
shipped  to  Spain,  there  being  no  highway  of  communica- 
tion with  the  eastern  part  of  America  at  that  time. 

The  Spanish  name  of  the  place  was  changed  to  San 
Francisco  in  1847,  but  it  did  not  become  a  city  until 
1850,  the  year  following  the  discovery  of  gold;  it  has, 
however,  continuously  been  a  raw  fur  collection  center 
of  interest,  but  most  importantly  since  1870,  owing  to 
large  receipts  of  fur  seal,  otter,  fox  and  other  valuable 
skins  from  Alaska  subsequent  to  that  date. 

In  1874  shipments  from  Alaska  to  San  Francisco 
comprised  7,515  beaver,  5,551  red  fox,  737  cross  fox, 
1,240  white  fox,  1,202  blue  fox,  33  badger,  193  silver 
fox,  260  bear,  5,424  marten,  1,985  land  otter,  2,183 
ermine,  10  wolf,  11,097  niink,  605  lynx,  1,085  sea  otter, 
18,521  muskrat  and  99,742  fur  seal  skins;  receipts  from 
points  on  the  coast  were  still  larger  for  all  the  articles 
named  except  foxes,  lynx,  marten,  muskrat,  sea  otter, 
ermine  and  fur  seals.  A  total  of  54  sea  otter,  961  blue 
fox,  650  Russian  sable  and  31,300  fur  seal  skins  were 

88 


SAN   FRANCISCO  8» 

received  at  San  Francisco  from  Kamtschatka  during 
the  same  year. 

San  Francisco  has  an  excellent  retail  fur  business 
in  manufactured  goods ;  some  of  the  most  alert  furriers, 
among  them  men  who  have  participated  in  making  the 
American  fur  trade  worth  while,  maintain  very  attrac- 
tive establishments  in  view  of  the  Golden  Gate. 

Herman  Liebes,  born  in  Rawicz,  Prussia,  in  1842, 
came  to  New  York  when  twenty  years  of  age,  and  was 
employed  for  some  twelve  months  in  the  fur  manu- 
factory of  John  Ruszits,  New  York.  He  resigned  that 
position,  and  in  company  with  Charles  J.  Biehlow  went 
to  San  Francisco,  where,  in  October,  1864,  they  began 
fur  manufacturing  in  a  small  way,  and  by  untiring  at- 
tention to  their  work  gradually  built  up  a  large  trade, 
and  eventually  the  leading  fur  business  on  the  Pacific 
Coast — and  it  still  occupies  that  exalted  position  with 
very  handsome  stores  at  San  Francisco  and  Portland; 
the  business  was  incorporated  in  1890  by  Herman,  Isaac 
and  George  Liebes,  Robert  and  Charles  Biehlow,  with 
capital  stock  of  one  million  dollars. 

Herman  Liebes  was  instrumental  in  organizing  the 
North  American  Commercial  Company,  which  secured 
the  second  and  last  twenty-year  lease  of  the  Alaska  fur 
sealing  privilege.  His  business  interests  also  included 
the  ownership  of  a  number  of  staunch  vessels  which 
made  regular  trips  to  Alaska  and  adjacent  islands  for 
the  collection  of  fur  seal,  fox,  otter  and  sundry  fine 
skins. 

Herman  Liebes  died  in  London,  February  28,  1898. 
Charles  Biehlow  died  November  19,  1899,  aged  fifty- 
seven. 


It  is  a  long  way  back  to  1778,  but  that  is  the  date 
of  the  establishment  of  the  first  fur  trading  post  on  the 
site  of  the  present  great  city  of  Chicago;  the  name  of 
the  trader  who  laid  the  cities'  foundation  was  Jean 
Baptiste  P.  de  Saible.  His  trade  was  with  Indians,  who 
received  their  pay  in  firewater,  beads,  cheap  guns  and 
trinkets  at  enormous  profit  to  the  trader.  Other  ad- 
venturous buyers  opened  posts  in  succession,  but  after 
the  Fort  Dearborn  massacre  the  place  was  deserted  and 
shunned  by  white  dealers  until  18 18,  when  the  American 
Fur  Company  erected  a  warehouse  at  Chicago,  and  re- 
vived fur  trading  under  better  methods  than  had  ruled 
in  the  earlier  days.  Indians,  in  consequence  of  more 
satisfactory  inducements  and  better  treatment,  brought 
in  large  supplies  of  good  skins ;  the  collections  increased 
in  volume  from  season  to  season,  and  the  number  of 
dealers  was  also  gradually  augmented,  and  in  due  time 
beads  and  fierce  firewater  were  superceded  by  "cash 
money"  as  the  medium  of  exchange  with  both  red  and 
white  trappers. 

For  many  years  following  the  War  of  the  Rebellion, 
Chicago  was  the  most  important  market  for  the  receipt 
of  "heavy  stock,"  such  as  raw  and  Indian  tanned  elk, 
deer,  antelope  and  buffalo  hides ;  the  latter  were  received 
in  enormous  quantities  until  unchecked  avarice  effected 
the  slaughter  of  the  last  poor  bison  in  1886. 

Other  fur  skins  have  been  continuously  marketed  at 
Chicago  in  large  numbers;  the  city  still  holds  leading 
rank  among  the  raw  fur  centers  of  America,  and  the 
fur  trade  is  conducted  by  some  of  the  most  enterprising 
and  reliable  merchants  of  this  latest  day  of  grace. 

Chicago  is  also  important  in  point  of  fur  manu- 

90 


CHICAGO  •! 

facturing,  ranking  next  to  New  York  as  regards  the 
number  of  individuals  and  firms  engaged  in  the  various 
branches  of  the  fur  business. 

Bolles  &  Rogers,  dealers  in  raw  furs,  have  for 
many  years  maintained  headquarters  at  Chicago,  129 
West  Kinzie  Street,  with  important  branches  at  Omaha, 
Nebraska ;  Sioux  City,  Iowa ;  Fargo,  North  Dakota,  and 
other  places.  The  business  is  efficiently  conducted,  pro- 
nouncedly successful,  and  constantly  growing. 

Charles  Glanz  was  born  in  Ebingen,  Wurtemberg, 
Germany,  in  1832,  and  before  he  had  entered  his  "teens" 
went  to  London  to  acquire  a  practical  knowledge  of  fur 
manufacturing,  continuing  his  study  until  he  mastered 
the  trade.  He  came  to  New  York  in  1848,  and  two 
years  later  established  in  the  fur  manufacturing  busi- 
ness at  127  William  Street,  where  he  continued  until 
1863,  when  he  removed  his  business  to  Chicago,  and  suc- 
cessfully conducted  it  for  thirty-four  years  in  the  same 
building.  He  was  highly  esteemed  by  every  one  who 
knew  him.    He  died  April  14,  1906. 

The  business  continues  under  style:  Charles  Glanz 
Company ;  president,  Edward  W.  Hillis. 

A.  Hoenigsberger  was  for  an  extended  period  man- 
ager of  the  china  goat  and  dog  robe  dyeing  plant  of 
J.  &  A.  Boskowitz,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  and  so  remained 
until  that  branch  of  the  house  was  discontinued.  In 
1892  he  went  to  Chicago  and  established  the  Perfection 
Fur  Robe  Company,  his  associates  being  Dave  Hoenigs- 
berger and  Harry  L.  Hoenigsberger.  The  business  em- 
braces the  manufacture  of  fur  robes,  coats,  baby 
carriage  robes  and  auto  fur  accessories  and  dealing  in 
Chinese  furs. 

A.  Hoenigsberger  died  December  18,  1901. 


SAINT    PAUL,    1853 


t 

For  many  years,  and  down  to  1848,  the  fur  trade 
constituted  the  principal  business  of  the  great  State  of 
Minnesota;  important  supplies  of  raw  furs  of  desirable 
quality  being  obtained  regularly  from  Indians,  who  were 
expert  hunters  and  trappers,  and  later  from  both  Indian 
and  white  trappers. 

In  1770  Captain  Carver  began  trading  with  the 
natives,  and  was  the  first  white  man  to  visit  the  wonder- 
ful cave  under  Dayton  Bluff ;  he  traded  in  the  section 
for  several  years. 

In  1840  there  was  just  one  log  house,  a  small  affair, 
upon  the  present  site  of  the  City  of  St.  Paul;  in  each 
succeeding  year  pioneer  settlers  took  up  claims  and 
erected  small  cabins.  The  first  fur  trader  to  locate  at 
St.  Paul  was  named  Tasche — he  claimed  no  other  name 
— who  began  trading  with  the  Indians  in  1843,  obtain- 
ing from  them  good  collections  of  beaver,  mink,  musk- 
rat,  raccoon  and  other  skins,  beaver  leading  in  im- 
portance. The  prices  paid  were  insignificant,  the  me- 
diums of  exchange  being  cheap  knives,  colored  cloths, 

92 


FIRST   SHANTY    ERECTED   ON   THE    SITE    OP   THE   PRESENT 
CITY    OF    SAINT    PAUL. 


glass  beads  and  chiefly  whiskey — so  called.  The  whiskey 
made  for  Indian  consumption,  and  common  pale  faces, 
was  neither  more  nor  less  than  a  vicious  brew  of  rank 
tobacco,  vitriol  and  water. 

Tasche  remained  at  St.  Paul  for  some  years,  and 
made  considerable  money,  but  was  finally  beaten  at  his 
own  game,  and  perished  in  the  wilderness. 

Tasche  always  carried  a  large  knife,  which  he  knew 
how  to  use  effectively  whenever  occasion  demanded ;  this 
knife  was  found  in  his  grave  which  was  opened  in  the 
course  of  railway  construction  many  years  after  his 
disappearance ;  the  knife  was  sent  to  Barnum's  Museum 
in  New  York,  where  it  remained  on  exhibition  until  the 
museum  building  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1865. 

St.  Paul  became  an  extremely  important  receiving 
center  for  raw  furs  in  1844,  in  which  year  the  peltries 

93 


94  SAINT   PAUL 

collected  in  the  Red  River  Valley  were  diverted  from 
Canadian  points  to  St.  Paul.  The  skins  brought  to  the 
Minnesota  town  were  later  sent  down  the  Mississippi 
River  and  finally  to  New  York  for  local  consumption 
and  export,  chiefly  the  latter;  in  1854- 1856  the  raw  furs 
collected  at  St.  Paul  averaged  between  $160,000  and 
$200,000  per  annum. 

In  1856  shipments  from  St.  Paul  comprised: 

Mink,  8,276  skins;  value,  $18,621. 

Marten,  1,429  skins;  value,  $3,570. 

Lynx,  50  skins;  value,  $125. 

Fisher,  1,046  skins;  value,  $4,702. 

Raccoon,  3,401  skins;  value,  $2,550. 

Otter,  405  skins;  value,  $1,470. 

Bear,  610  skins;  value,  $6,700. 

Silver  fox,  8  skins;  value,  $400. 

Cross  fox,  20  skins;  value,  $100. 

Red  fox,  876  skins;  value,  $1,095. 
'        Kitt  fox,  2,540  skins;  value,  $1,271. 

Wolverine,  2,031  skins;  value,  $3,048. 

Muskrat,  64,290  skins;  value,  $11,572. 

Bison  hides,  7,500;  value,  $41,200. 

St.  Paul  has  not  only  been  an  active  raw  fur  mar- 
ket from  the  beginning,  but  for  many  years  has  been  an 
important  fur  manufacturing  center  at  wholesale,  and 
at  the  present  time  definitely  occupies  the  first  place  in 
the  manufacture  of  men's  fur  coats,  of  which  many 
thousands  are  made  and  sold  annually  throughout  the 
west  and  northwest.  The  winter  climate  also  favors  a 
very  large  local  retail  trade  in  men's  and  ladies'  furs  in 
all  desirable  grades. 

Isidor  Rose  was  one  of  the  most  painstaking  men 


SAINT   PAUL  95 

in  the  fur  business,  every  detail  of  which  enlisted  his 
interest,  and  received  his  consideration;  he  enjoyed  per- 
fect health  during  his  long  life  of  nearly  eighty-four 
years,  and  was  present  at  his  office  until  one  o'clock  in 
the  afternoon  of  the  day  of  his  death,  which  resulted 
suddenly  as  the  effect  of  a  severe  cold. 

Mr.  Rose  was  born  October  9,  1832,  became  en- 
gaged in  the  fur  business  in  1856,  and  was  in  the  firm 
of  Joseph  Ullmann,  St.  Paul,  Minnesota,  during  his 
entire  business  career.    He  died  March  3,  191 5. 

Gordon  &  Ferguson  rank  as  one  of  the  best  known 
fur  manufacturing  houses  in  St.  Paul — ^but  that  is  alto- 
gether too  local  to  express  the  facts,  for  wherever  strictly 
good  furs  are  sold  and  worn  throughout  the  mighty 
northwest,  eastward  to  the  Empire  City,  and  in  every 
real  center  of  collection  across  the  "briney  deep,"  the 
firm  is  known  as  standing  firmly  at  the  front  in  the 
manufacture  of  men's  fur  coats,  caps  and  gloves,  and 
as  makers  of  ladies'  furs  that  are  never  misnamed  or 
incorrectly  represented  in  any  way. 

The  business  was  established  by  Richard  Gordon, 
April  I,  1 87 1,  at  132  Third  Street,  and  the  record  on 
the  books  shows  steady  growth  to  date.  Paul  R.  Fergu- 
son was  received  to  partnership  in  July,  1873. 

Charles  L.  Kluckhohn  went  with  the  house  in  1874, 
and  C.  W.  Gordon  in  January,  1880.  January  i,  1886, 
Charles  L.  Kluckhohn  and  C.  W.  Gordon  were  admitted 
into  the  firm.  January,  1902,  the  business  was  incor- 
porated, the  incorporators  being :  Richard  Gordon,  Paul 
D.  Ferguson,  Charles  W.  Gordon,  Charles  L.  Kluckhohn 
and  Theodore  C.  Borup ;  capital  stock,  $700,cxx). 

During  the  passing  years  the  house  has  taken  sue- 


I 


M  SAINT   PAUL 

cessively  larger  and  larger  premises,  and  now  occupies 
a  magnificent  building,  specially  erected  to  serve  the 
needs  of  the  great  business,  at  Sibley,  Fourth  and  Fifth 
Streets. 

Gordon  &  Ferguson  make  a  pronounced  feature  of 
"pure  fur,"  and  they  are  so  emphatic  about  it  that  dealers 
and  consumers  alike  understand  that  every  claim  made 
for  "Gordon  Furs"  will  be  sustained  hy  the  furs. 

Certainly  a  house  like  that — 'twould  be  well  if 
there  were  many  more — merits  presentation  at  the  front 
rank  of  those  who  have,  in  the  best  sense,  made  and 
maintained  the  fur  trade  of  America. 

Paul  R.  Ferguson,  second  member  of  the  firm,  died 
April  28,  1905.  Richard  Gordon  died  January  21,  191 1, 
in  the  eighty-second  year  of  his  age. 

McKibbin  &  Company  began  the  manufacture  at 
wholesale  of  fine  furs,  men's  fur  coats  and  sleigh  robes 
on  December  i,  1886,  achieving  pronounced  success 
from  the  beginning,  as  the  reasonable  result  of  produc- 
ing only  reliable  goods.  The  firm,  now  one  of  the  most 
prominent  and  reliable  in  the  city,  was  changed  to  Mc- 
Kibbin, Driscoll  &  Dorsey  January,  1901,  and  was  in- 
corporated under  the  same  style  February,  191 5,  with 
$800,000  capital. 

Ernst  Albrecht  established,  in  1855,  at  St.  Paul,  a 
manufacturing  fur  business  which  has  grown  up  in 
equal  pace  with  the  city,  to  a  leading  position  among  the 
high-clas5  business  houses  of  St.  Paul. 

Otto  E.  Albrecht,  son  of  Ernst  Albrecht,  was  ad- 
mitted into  partnership  in  1895,  under  style,  E.  Albrecht 
&  Son.  The  firm  manufactures  high-class  furs,  and 
conducts  a  wholesale,  retail  and  mail  order  business  of 


SAINT   PAUL  97 

large  proportions,  with  a  flourishing  branch  in  Minne- 
apolis. 

Ernst  Albrecht  died  May  25,  191 5,  since  which  date 
O.  E.  Albrecht  has  been  sole  owner  of  the  business. 

PURE   FUR 

Members  of  State  legislatures  are  seemingly  averse 
to  enacting  laws  strictly  in  the  interest  of  consumers, 
though  not  energetically  opposed  to  legalistic  action  of 
the  countrary  order — imposing  a  fine  of  one  hundred 
dollars  for  killing  a  twenty-cent  rabbit  busily  engaged 
in  destroying  a  summer  garden,  and  practically  giving 
a  medal  of  honor  to  the  man  who  sells  the  manufactured 
bunny  hide  as  French  seal. 

The  legislature  of  Minnesota  may  be  credited  with 
a  departure  from  the  rule,  in  that  it  has  enacted  a  law 
with  the  following  provision : 

**No  person,  firm  or  corporation  shall  sell  or  offer 
for  sale  any  garment  or  article  of  wearing  apparel  com- 
posed either  in  whole  or  in  part  from  the  fur,  hide  or 
pelt  of  any  animal  under  any  name,  term,  trade  name  or 
other  designation  other  than  that  of  the  correct  name  of 
the  animal  from  which  the  said  fur,  hide  or  pelt  was 
removed."  . 

A  fine  of  not  less  than  $25  nor  more  than  $500; 
or  imprisonment  not  to  exceed  six  months,  or  both,  are 
provided  for  a  violation  of  the  provisions  of  the  bill. 


iWinneapolist 

James  McMillan  established  in  the  raw  fur  business 
in  Minneapolis  in  1877.  He  conducted  a  general  busi- 
ness as  dealer  and  exporter,  making  a  feature  of  fine 
northern  furs;  other  articles  handled  included  hides, 
pelts,  wool,  tallow,  ginseng  and  seneca  root;  he  oc- 
cupied very  large  premises  at  200-212  First  Avenue, 
North.  As  the  years  passed  the  business,  which  was 
invariably  characterized  by  correct  methods  and  fair 
dealing,  steadily  increased,  and  has  long  since  had  an 
international  .reputation.  Branches  were  in  due  course 
opened  in  the  west  and  Canada. 

The  business  was  incorporated  July  20,  1898,  under 
title:  McMillan  Fur  &  Wool  Company;  capital  stock, 
$100,000. 

Public  sales  of  furs  were  held  by  the  house  for 
several  seasons.  James  McMillan  died  March  24,  1909; 
born  at  Fryeburg,  Maine,  October  24,  1855. 

W.  J.  Burnett  founded  the  Northwestern  Hide  and 
Fur  Company  at  Minneapolis  in  1890,  dealing  in  raw 
furs,  hides,  sheep  pelts,  ginseng  and  sundry  medicinal 
roots.  The  business  has  shown  a  steady  annual  increase 
from  the  first  season,  and  now  ranks  among  the  largest 
in  the  country,  having  very  satisfactory  trade  relations 
with  trappers,  local  buyers  in  all  states  of  the  Union,  and 
an  export  trade.  The  concern,  for  the  convenience  of 
its  shippers,  carries  an  unusually  complete  supply  of 
specialties  required  by  trappers  in  the  field. 


98 


For  a  considerable  period,  from  the  beginning  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  Boston  was  an  important  raw- 
fur  center,  shipments  being  received  not  only  from  New 
England,  but  in  larger  quantities  from  the  west,  middle- 
west  and  southward.  With  the  increase  in  the  produc- 
tion of  wool,  both  wool  and  furs  were  shipped  to  Boston 
in  large  lots ;  the  city  even  "unto  this  day"  holds  leading 
rank  in  importance  and  reliability  as  a  wool  market,  but 
long  since  declined  in  magnitude  as  a  center  for  the 
receipt  of  raw  furs. 

Wool  has  always  had  a  universally  recognized 
standard  of  value,  established  grades,  and  a  definite 
price  per  pound;  furs,  unfortunately  or  otherwise,  ac- 
cording to  the  individual  viewpoint,  have  no  standard  of 
value,  each  buyer  fixing  the  price,  within  a  certain 
range,  upon  the  wonderful  basis  of  his  own  opinion.  It 
may  be  that  the  decline  of  the  raw  fur  trade  at  Boston 
is  due  to  a  considerable  extent  to  the  fact  that  Boston 
merchants  foimd  it  more  congenial  and  less  strenuously 
competitive  to  deal  chiefly  in  a  standardized  com- 
modity. 

99 


100  BOSTON 

Good  eastern  mink,  fox,  muskrat,  and  some  middle 
western  skins  are  still  marketed  at  Boston  with  satisfac- 
tion to  the  shippers. 

There  are  a  number  of  extremely  efficient  and  de- 
pendable furriers  at  Boston,  and  the  retail  fur  business 
of  the  city  is  important  in  quantity  and  quality. 

Martin  Bates,  who  during  his  long  business  career 
was  held  in  the  highest  respect  by  all  who  knew  him  or 
had  dealings  with  him,  entered  into  the  raw  fur  busi- 
ness in  his  native  town,  Boston,  in  1834;  a  year  later 
his  son  Martin  Bates,  Jr.,  became  associated  with  him, 
under  style:  Martin  Bates  &  Son.  In  1839  Charles  S. 
Bates  was  admitted  into  partnership,  and  the  firm  be- 
came Martin  Bates  &  Sons;  five  years  later  Martin 
Bates,  Jr.,  withdrew  and  removed  to  New  York,  where 
he  organized  the  firm  of  Finn  &  Bates,  dealers  in  hat- 
ters' furs  and  trimmings  in  Water  Street.  In  185 1  the 
previously  mentioned  firm  was  dissolved,  and  Martin 
Bates,  Jr.,  with  Josiah  O.  Hoffman,  of  Poughkeepsie, 
formed  the  firm  of  Martin  Bates,  Jr.,  &  Company;  six 
years  later  the  new  firm  became  largely  interested  in 
the  raw  fur  business,  with  a  commodious  warehouse  at 
51  Broadway,  New  York. 

They  had  buying  agents  in  St.  Paul,  Chicago  and 
Milwaukee,  all  of  whom  bought  up  large  collections  in 
competition  with  the  two  other  leading  houses  of  that 
time.  Henry  A.  Bromley  bought  for  them  at  St.  Paul, 
and  was  one  of  the  "great"  buyers  of  the  period. 

In  1874  Martin  Bates,  Jr.,  &  Company  sent  J. 
Lubbe  to  Victoria,  British  Columbia,  as  their  special 
agent;  they  then  had  an  interest  in  a  number  of 
schooners  engaged  in  hunting  fur  seals,  and  in  conse- 


BOSTON  l(tt 

quence  the  firm  became  important  factors  in  the  seal 
business,  shipping  the  raw  skins  to  London,  and  import- 
ing the  dyed  seals  for  wholesale  trade  in  New  York; 
they  maintained  their  business  in  seal  skins  until  1901, 
when  the  demand  materially  declined  on  account  of 
changes  in  fashion  and  sundry  government  regulations. 

C.  Francis  Bates  was  a  member  of  the  New  York 
firm  for  some  years;  in  1865  ^^  withdrew  and  in  asso- 
ciation with  a  number  of  capitalists  bought  out  the 
Northwestern  Fur  Company,  with  a  number  of  vessels, 
trading  posts.  Fort  Union,  Fort  Rice,  Fort  Benton,  and 
minor  places,  with  headquarters  at  St.  Louis.  The 
Northwestern  Fur  Company  made  large  collections  of 
raw  furs,  deer,  elk  and  antelope  skins,  and  upwards  of 
one  hundred  thousand  buffalo  robes  in  a  single  season ; 
all  these  goods  were  sent  to  New  York  for  assorting, 
distribution  and  export. 

After  the  death  of  Martin  Bates  in  i860,  the  busi- 
ness at  Boston  was  continued  by  Charles  S.  Bates. 

Martin  Bates,  Jr.,  born  1814,  died  January  i,  1883. 

C.  Francis  Bates,  born  1825,  died  August  2,  1912. 

Louis  Henry  Rogers,  who  has  been  with  the  New 
York  house  since  i860,  and  a  partner  since  1883,  is  the 
only  surviving  member  of  the  firm  of  Martin  Bates,  Jr., 
&  Company,  now  in  liquidation. 

Freeman  Wight  began  his  experience  in  the  fur 
trade  when  a  boy  in  the  late  forties  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  devoting  considerable  time  to  trapping  in  the 
open  country  around  Boston;  for  many  years  in  those 
early  days  he  never  received  more  than  eighty  cents 
for  a  fine  mink  skin,  and  yet  he  regarded  his  total  re- 
ceipts for  the  season  as  very  satisfactory.     When  a 


102  BOSTON 

young  man  he  established  in  the  fur  and  skin  business 
on  his  own  account,  and  continued  at  the  "old  stand" 
until  his  retirement  in  1908,  when  the  Freeman  Wight 
Company  was  incorporated. 

Jacob  Norton  came  to  the  United  States  from  Lon- 
don, England,  in  1844,  and  shortly  after  his  arrival 
entered  upon  what  proved  to  be  a  successful  career  in 
the  fur  business  in  Boston.  He  was  an  exceptionally 
capable  furrier,  and  one  of  the  most  gifted  and  highly 
respected  men  in  business  affairs  in  the  city — a  very 
marked  honor  when  we  note  that  integrity  is  the  general 
rule  among  merchants  at  the  Hub.  He  may  be  freely 
credited  with  being  instrumental  to  the  extreme  of  op- 
portunity in  making  the  fur  business  of  America  what  it 
is  at  its  best. 

Mr.  Norton  remained  actively  interested  in  mer- 
cantile matters  to  the  time  of  his  death,  March  20,  1897. 

The  business  has  since  been  continued  on  the  same 
high  moral  plane  by  his  sons,  under  style:  Jacob  Nor- 
ton's Sons. 

Edward  E.  Norton,  senior  in  succession,  died  June 
5,  191 7.  He  was  prominently  identified  with  various 
important  mercantile  interests  of  the  city,  as  well  as  the 
fur  industry,  and  was  active  in  other  matters.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Boston  Chamber  of  Commerce,  for 
some  time  president  of  the  Boston  Scientific  Society, 
Society  of  Arts,  Massachusetts  Horticultural  Society, 
the  City  Club,  and  an  official  of  the  Jewish  Federation 
of  Charities. 

Horace  Dodd,  a  man  of  righteous  instincts,  more 
conscious  of  the  value  of  his  word  than  some  men  of 
greater  wealth  are  of  their  bond,  he  lived  his  life  honored 


BOSTON  103 

by  all  who  knew  him,  and  hundreds  to  whom  he  was 
personally  a  stranger.  Mr.  Dodd  conducted  a  raw  fur 
business  at  Boston  for  an  exceptionally  extended  period, 
beginning  1823,  and  for  more  than  sixty  years  occupied 
the  same  store  at  130  Milk  Street. 

Mr.  Dodd  died  June  10,  1896,  in  the  ninety-third 
year  of  his  age. 

John  Eichorn  was  born  in  Rheinpfalz,  Bavaria, 
Germany,  in  1825,  and  after  learning  the  trade  of  fur- 
rier he  came  to  the  United  States  in  1847  ^"^  settled  in 
Boston,  where  he  engaged  in  the  fur  business,  taking  a 
small  shop  on  Elm  Street;  after  the  great  fire  he  re- 
moved to  y2i  Kingston  Street,  where  he  continued  to 
manufacture  and  deal  in  furs  up  to  the  time  of  his  death, 
September  23,  1908. 

In  the  beginning  of  his  career,  and  for  many  years, 
he  regularly  visited  Indian  and  white  trappers  over  a 
large  section  of  the  country  to  purchase  peltries.  He 
was  strictly  honest  and  fair  in  all  his  dealings  with  men 
in  the  field,  and  made  many  friends  in  the  great  outdoors 
of  America. 

Edward  Kakas,  born  in  Budapest,  Hungary,  1829, 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1850,  and  a  year  later 
began  the  manufacture  of  furs  at  Boston;  he  continued 
the  business  with  marked  success  until  1879,  when  he 
retired  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Edward  and  his 
grandson  Edward  F.  Kakas. 

Edward  Kakas,  Sr.,  died  September  19,  1904. 

Two  of  his  sons  established  on  their  own  account, 
July,  1897,  as  Kakas  Brothers;  since  incorporated. 

Joseph  A.  Jackson  entered  the  ranks  of  the  manu- 
facturing fur  trade  at  Boston  in  i860,  began  in  a  small 


104  BOSTON 

way,  and  by  untiring  industry  and  fidelity  advanced  to 
a  leading  position,  enjoying  from  the  first  the  good 
will  and  respect  of  his  many  business  associates,  and  a 
discriminating  public. 

Mr.  Jackson  died  September  5,  1894. 

The  widely  known  firm  of  Wight  Brothers,  Boston, 
was  organized  in  1869,  to  conduct  a  business  in  raw, 
dressed  and  dyed  furs;  the  members  were  Joseph  F. 
Wight,  Lewis  Wight  and  Almon  Wight.  The  firm  oc- 
cupied a  very  high  position  in  the  trade  at  home  and 
abroad,  and  was  successful  from  the  beginning. 

Joseph  F.  Wight  died  September  10,  1909.  Lewis 
Wight  died  January  12,  19 10.  Almon  Wight  died  Sep- 
tember 17,  191 5. 

The  business  was  incorporated  in  January,  19 14, 
as  Wight  Brothers,  Inc.,  the  incorporators  being  Arthur 
L.  Barr,  president  and  treasurer;  E.  L.  Capen  Wight, 
secretary. 

Otto  J.  Piehler  has  been  a  busy  furrier  at  Boston 
since  May,  1888;  his  integrity  has  never  been  ques- 
tioned, and  his  continued  success  is  well  deserved.  Mr. 
Piehler  joined  in  establishing  the  firm  of  W.  Cranz  & 
Company,  in  1888,  and  after  two  changes  took  over  the 
entire  business,  which  he  continues;  he  incorporated  in 
1909  as  Otto  J.  Piehler,  Inc. 

Lamson  &  Hubbard  have  been  prominent,  progres- 
sive and  successful  fur  manufacturers  at  retail  in  Bos- 
ton for  forty  years,  making  at  all  times  a  specialty  of 
high  grade  goods.  The  business  was  incorporated  in 
1907,  and  has  shown  a  continuous  annual  increase.  A 
very  fine  branch  store  is  maintained  at  Newport,  R.  I. 

In  August,  1916,  the  Lamson  &  Hubbard  Company 


BOSTON  105 

was  enlarged  and  newly  incorporated  with  $i,500,o<X) 
capital,  and  as  a  consequence  of  the  change  acquired  the 
old  established  and  leading  manufacturing  and  retail  fur 
business  of  Balch,  Price  &  Company,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 
which  is  conducted  without  change  of  name. 

The  incorporators  are:  George  A.  Price,  president; 
O.  C.  Hubbard  and  Jarvis  Lamson,  Sr.,  vice-president ; 
G.  L.  Demarest,  secretary;  Jarvis  Lamson,  Jr.,  general 
manager ;  J.  C.  Bassett  and  W.  W.  Williams. 

The  principal  city  of  Wisconsin  has  been  an  inter- 
esting fur  center  since  the  date  of  its  settlement  as  an 
outpost  of  civilization;  white  traders  bought  peltries 
from  the  Indians  in  the  beginning  with  the  common 
frontier  mediums  of  exchange,  beads  and  trinkets,  and 
as  time  sped  on  the  trade  increased,  and  the  business  in 
raw  furs  has  been  maintained  to  the  present  day. 

Fur  manufacturing,  both  at  wholesale  and  retail, 
occupies  an  important  place  among  the  industries  of  the 
city;  the  output  of  fur  goods  made  in  Milwaukee  in- 
cludes ladies'  and  men's  garments,  small  furs,  fur  head- 
wear  and  gloves. 

John  E.  Hansen  was  born  in  Denmark,  July  15, 
1837,  and  with  his  parents  came  to  American  when  he 
was  nine  years  of  age,  and  in  1858  made  his  permanent 
home  in  Milwaukee,  where  he  engaged  in  the  hat  and 
fur  business  at  wholesale.  In  1862  he  founded,  under 
title:  Hansen's  Empire  Fur  Factory,  a  wholesale  hat 
and  fur  business,  which  in  the  course  of  more  than  fifty 
years  has  become  widely  known  and  of  leading  rank. 


106  MILWAUKEE 

He  is  remarkably  public  spirited  and  enjoys  the  respect 
and  esteem  of  men  of  recognized  worth  in  all  walks  of 
life  in  his  city,  and  prominent  fur  merchants  in  the 
greater  marts  of  America  and  Europe. 

Herman  Reel  made  his  entry  into  the  ranks  of  the 
raw  fur  merchants  of  Milwaukee  in  1888,  and  has  ener- 
getically pressed  his  way  to  the  front,  consolidating  and 
holding  every  inch  gained  in  his  progressive  march. 
He  began  his  career  in  the  trade  as  a  dealer  in  raw  furs 
and  wool,  and  his  original  methods  of  advertising,  and 
large  buying,  attracted  attention  in  all  fur  and  wool 
producing  sections. 

In  the  autumn  of  1912  he  enlarged  his  operations, 
adding  manufacturing  at  wholesale;  three  years  later 
he  opened  a  retail  department,  for  which  he  leased  one 
of  the  best  located  and  most  attractive  stores  in  the  city. 


HouigbiUe 

Louisville,  Kentucky,  was  chosen  as  a  "home  spot" 
by  a  few  pioneers  in  1778,  but  did  not  receive  its  name 
until  1780,  when  it  was  named  after  Louis  XVL,  of 
France,  in  recognition  of  the  services  rendered  by 
French  soldiers  in  the  Revolutionary  War. 

Raw  furs  were  handled  at  the  settlement,  as  a  favor- 
able point  of  receipt  and  shipment,  from  the  date  of 
settlement;  trappers  in  nearby  sections  of  the  State, 
Indiana  and  Ohio  carried  their  furs  thither  for  ex- 
change, at  first  in  small  lots,  and  later  in  ever  increasing 
quantity. 

Louisville  continues  to  be  one  of  the  leading  mar- 
kets for  the  receipt  of  southern  and  middle  western 
raw  furs. 

Van  Winkle  &  White  engaged  in  the  raw  fur  busi- 
ness at  Louisville  in  1828,  and  were  unusually  success- 
ful in  securing  large  collections  of  skins  in  Kentucky, 
Indiana,  Illinois,  Ohio  and  surrounding  territory;  for 
the  furs  thus  accumulated  they  had  a  ready  market  in 
the  house  succeeding  John  Jacob  Astor  at  New  York. 

Lewis  J.  White,  of  the  above  firm,  was  the  elder 

107 


108  LOUISVILLE 

brother  of  John  White,  and  when  the  latter,  a  lad  of 
fifteen,  went  to  Louisville  in  1837,  he  was  given  a  posi- 
tion in  his  brother's  firm.  In  1842  Lewis  J.  White  re- 
tired from  active  participation  in  the  business,  and  the 
firm  was  changed  to  John  White  &  Company,  under 
which  style  it  has  been  continued  to  the  present  time. 

John  White  was  for  sixty  years  the  leading  fur 
merchant  of  Louisville;  not  merely  a  leader  gauged  by 
the  volume  of  business  transacted,  but  one  accorded 
leadership  by  virtue  of  personal  merit  and  unquestioned 
integrity — a  man  and  merchant  whose  every  act  was  a 
credit  to  himself,  his  city,  and  the  branch  of  trade  to 
which  his  life  was  devoted. 

Lewis  J.  White  died  in  1875. 

John  White  was  born  July  23,  1822,  died  May  12, 
1902. 

The  raw  fur,  hide  and  wool  business  now  conducted 
under  style :  M.  Sabel  &  Sons,  Inc.,  and  which  ranks  as 
the  largest  south  of  the  Ohio  River,  was  established  in 
1856,  and  has  continuously  enjoyed  an  excellent  reputa- 
tion. 

The  incorporators  are:  Joseph  Sabel,  president; 
W.  B.  Dale,  vice-president;  Alvin  J.  Sabel,  secretary; 
Joseph  B.  Schnadig,  treasurer. 

The  West  Coast  Grocery  Company,  of  Tacoma, 
Washington,  which  has  a  large  trade  with  general  mer- 
chants in  Alaska,  in  many  instances  accepting  raw  furs 
in  payment  for  groceries,  some  years  since  became  con- 
vinced that  Alaskan  raw  furs  could  quite  readily  be  se- 


TACOMA 


109 


cured  and  forwarded  to  Tacoma  in  fair  sized  collections, 
and  from  time  to  time  be  sold  by  tender  to  fur  merchants 
and  manufacturers  in  leading  American  markets  with 
decided  advantage  to  both  sellers  and  buyers.  The 
company  in  1891  proceeded  to  effect  the  necessary  ar- 
rangements; good  shipments  were  obtained,  and  in  due 
time  the  initial  sale  was  held;  every  skin  was  sold  at 
satisfactory  prices,  and  the  new  method  of  marketing 
Alaskan  skins  was  an  acknowledged  success.  Similar 
sales  have  since  been  held  three  or  more  times  annually, 
invariably  with  results  gratifying  to  all  concerned;  fur 
merchants  and  manufacturers  operating  in  many  of  the 
large  cities  of  the  United  States  and  Canada  regularly 
attend,  or  are  represented,  and  are  interested  bidders. 
The  members  of  the  company  are:  Charles  H. 
Hyde,  president  J.  H.  Weer,  vice-president ;  A.  A.  Pente- 
cost, secretary;  Robert  H.  Hyde,  treasurer. 


Vi'Tf- 


COLUMBUS'    SHIP 


l^ato  jFur  dealers'  ^ggociation 

The  Raw  Fur  Dealers'  Association  of  the  State  of 
New  York  was  organized  at  Utica  on  October  31,  1904, 
the  charter  members  being:  John  M.  Cooper,  Bain- 
bridge;  C.  W.  Bacon,  East  Hamilton;  Thomas  Backus, 
Rockroyal;  C.  F.  Cooper,  Bainbridge;  Fred  Davis,  Os- 
wego; R.  H.  Davis,  Lacona;  B.  C.  Phillips,  Cincinnatus; 
Albert  Roach,  Gouverneur;  George  Skerritt,  Camden; 
S.  F.  Tucker,  Baldwinsville. 

At  the  present  time  the  Association  has  a  member- 
ship of  more  than  one  hundred,  all  of  whom  are  im- 
portant dealers,  well  known  throughout  the  State.  The 
work  of  the  Association  has  been  highly  beneficial  to  the 
trade  at  large,  and  is  entitled  to  extreme  praise  for  the 
better  conditions  and  higher  standards  in  raw  fur 
handling  now  prevailing;  it  has,  as  the  outcome  of 
strenuous  efforts,  secured  the  passage  of  laws  for  the 
long  needed  protection  of  fur-bearers ;  the  regulation  of 
the  trapping  season  and  thus  decisively  checking  the 
catch  of  unprime  and  springy  skins,  and  conserving 
future  supplies;  and  furthermore  has  effected  a  better 
understanding  among  dealers,  a  larger  measure  of 
rational  co-operation  and  lessened  unwise  competition, 
results  which  in  the  aggregate  have  added  thousands  of 
dollars  to  the  value  of  the  annual  collection,  not  by  in- 
creasing the  catch,  but  by  confining  the  season  withi 
proper  limits. 

It  is  an  excellent  record — there  should  be  no  re- 
action. 


110 


Colb  Storage 

Formerly  individual  owners  of  fur  garments  and 
small  furs  cared  for,  really  worried  over,  their  posses- 
sions during  the  summer  months,  packing  them  in  cam- 
phor and  other  odorous  things  to  protect  them  against 
consuming  moths,  only  to  have  them  pretty  well  mussed 
by  the  return  of  snowy  days.  In  many  instances,  where 
the  involved  labor  was  considered  and  the  cost  was  not, 
the  task  of  caring  for  the  furry  treasures  was  delegated 
to  furriers,  who  insured  the  goods  against  thieves,  fire 
and  moths. 

In  these  latter  days  furs  of  all  kinds,  raw,  dressed 
and  manufactured,  are  perfectly  protected,  and  im- 
proved, by  being  kept  in  cold  storage,  and  this  method 
of  protection  is  now  a  distinct  and  important  branch  of 
the  fur  business. 


lU 


Cijarleg  ^.  porter 

Charles  S.  Porter,  who  is  to-day  one  of  the  most 
progressive  and  best  known  fur  merchants  in  America, 
made  his  entry  into  the  fur  business  in  June,  1874,  with 
the  leading  house  of  John  Ruszits,  with  whom  a  remark- 
able number  of  young  men  in  succeeding  years  began 
their  mercantile  career;  he  remained  with  Mr.  Ruszits 
until  June,  1879,  when  he  withdrew  to  accept  an  engage- 
ment in  the  banking  business  in  Wall  Street.  With  this 
exception  men  graduated  from  the  fur  establishment  of 
John  Ruszits  remained  in  the  fur  trade,  occasionally 
going  with  other  firms,  or  entering  the  lists  on  their 
own  account.  The  charm  of  the  fur  business,  once 
definitely  experienced,  remains  and  becomes  a  dominant 
influence;  now  and  then  some  one  breaks  the  "tie  that 
binds,"  and  turns  to  new  fields  in  quest  of  fortune's 
favors,  but  in  nearly  every  instance  is  ultimately  drawn 
back  into  the  world  of  fur  by  the  irresistable  fascination 
of  the  most  interesting  industry  in  mercantile  history. 

Mr.  Porter  was  not  an  exception  to  this  rule,  for 
when  he  had  handled  mere  money  for  eight  years  he 
severed  his  connection  with  banking,  and  on  June  i, 
1887,  re-entered  the  fur  business  with  Rudolph  Schover- 
ling,  an  importer  of  furs  and  skins  in  New  York,  with 
whom  he  remained  until  May,  1895;  during  the  period 
Mr.  Porter  made  a  careful  and  thorough  study  of  the 
detailed  merits  and  values  of  all  domestic  and  imported 
peltries,  from  the  raw  product  to  skins  in  the  various 
preparatory  stages  of  manufacture ;  at  the  same  time  he 

112 


CHARLES   S.   PORTER  118 

acquired  a  complete  knowledge  of  the  mercantile  and 
commercial  methods  prevailing  in  the  fur  trade  at  home 
and  abroad. 

In  May,  1895,  Mr.  Porter  went  with  H.  Liebes  & 
Company,  in  their  New  York  house,  continuing  with 
the  firm  until  January  i,  1896,  when  he  was  requested 
to  accept  an  important  position  with  G.  Gaudig  &  Blum, 
Leipzig  fur  merchants,  in  their  American  branch  at 
New  York.  In  this  connection  Mr.  Porter's  extreme 
efficiency  was  readily  perceived  and  appreciated,  and  in 
March,  1903,  he  was  chosen  manager  of  the  house,  and 
during  the  succeeding  years  he  successfully  and  satis- 
factorily discharged  the  manifold  duties  of  that  re- 
sponsible office.  The  business  of  the  house  steadly  ex- 
panded under  his  painstaking  management,  and  in  a 
comparatively  short  time  advanced  to  the  forefront 
among  fur  importing  houses,  and  purchasers  and  ex- 
porters of  American  raw  furs. 

In  March,  191 5,  the  New  York  branch  of  G.  Gau- 
dig &  Blum  was  purchased  by  an  American  corporation, 
of  which  Charles  S.  Porter  was,  and  is,  president;  the 
business  has  continued  without  change  of  title. 

Mr.  Porter  is  a  man  of  dependable,  upright  char- 
acter, sound  judgment  in  mercantile  matters,  alert  and 
progressive,  and  enjoys  the  esteem  and  good  will  of  his 
fellow  merchants  in  the  Metropolis,  dealers  and  manu- 
facturing furriers  throughout  the  country,  and  the  lead- 
ing fur  merchants  of  Canada  and  Europe,  with  all  of 
whom  he  maintains  gratifying  trade  relations. 

Mr.  Porter  was  president  of  the  Fur  Merchants* 
Credit  Association  of  the  City  of  New  York  for  six 
years,  1908-19 13,  and  was  released  from  the  honor  of 


114  CHARLES   S.   PORTER 

further  service  only  on  account  of  the  recognized 
fact  that  increasing  business  demanded  his  undivided 
attention. 

The  outbreak  of  war  in  Europe  in  19 14,  only  a  few 
weeks  prior  to  the  opening  of  a  new  raw  fur  season, 
made  it  evident  that  the  widely  extended  conflagration 
would  stop  fur  exporting,  and  result  in  the  accumula- 
tion of  a  very  considerable  surplus  of  American  raw 
furs  for  which  there  was  no  other  available  market. 
This  exceedingly  adverse  condition  immediately  en- 
gaged the  serious  attention  of  Mr.  Porter,  who,  after 
careful  deliberation,  put  forth  active  efforts  to  devise 
and  develop  sound  methods  for  testing  the  consuming 
power  of  the  home  market,  and  determining  the  values 
of  skins,  in  order  that  merchants  throughout  the  country 
might  operate  advantageously. 

Mr.  Porter  repeatedly  conferred  with  leading  firms 
in  the  trade,  and  as  the  outcome  of  his  counsel  and 
untiring  interest  in  the  matter,  the  New  York  Fur 
Auction  Sales  Corporation  was  organized  in  the  autumn 
of  the  following  year,  and  Mr.  Porter  was  chosen 
president. 

The  new  organization  met  with  instant  favgr  in 
the  trade,  and  the  initial  public  sale  of  raw  furs  held 
under  its  auspices  in  January,  191 6,  was  extremely  suc- 
cessful and  highly  creditable — a  real  event  in  the  fur 
trade  of  America. 


EARLY   SEAL   DRESSING   AND   DYEING 

About  1825  Denison  Williams  began  the  work  of 
dressing  and  dyeing  fur  seal  skins  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  he 
soon  removed  from  the  city,  but  his  associates,  W.  S. 
Packer,  Jr.,  E.  P.  Prentice  and  J.  H.  Prentice,  continued 
the  business,  and  in  a  very  few  years  built  up  a  satis- 
factory trade,  amounting  to  about  half  a  million  dollars 
per  annum. 

At  the  same  period  John  Bryan,  and  a  little  later 
George  C.  Treadwell,  James  Chase,  John  S.  Smith  and 
Robert  Cheesebrough  were  engaged  in  dressing  and 
dyeing  fur  seal  skins  at  Albany,  upwards  of  twenty 
thousand  skins  being  handled  in  a  season ;  owing  to  in- 
efficiency in  unhairing  the  skins,  the  seal  pelts  were  at 
first  chiefly  used  in  the  manufacture  of  men's  caps,  for 
which  there  was  a  much  larger  demand  than  at  present. 
James  Chase,  mentioned  above,  very  early  traveled  ex- 
tensively throughout  the  west  in  quest  of  raw  furs,  and 
extended  his  trips  by  water  to  the  coast  of  Alaska  to 
purchase  raw  fur  seals  at  first  hand  from  the  natives; 

115 


116  SEAL   DRESSING  AND   DYEING 

prices  for  such  skins  at  that  time  were  rated  not  in 
dollars  and  cents,  but  in  cents  only. 

The  business  in  dressing  and  dyeing  fur  seal  skins 
at  Albany  began  to  decline  in  1840,  and  gradually  be- 
came so  reduced  in  volume  that  it  was  abandoned  a  few 
years  later  by  all  concerned,  except  one  firm. 

GEORGE  C.   TREADWELL 

Dating  from  the  period,  some  three  hundred  years 
ago,  when  the  Dutch  ascending  the  Hudson  River  from 
New  Amsterdam  finally  efifected  a  settlement  on  the 
site  now  occupied  by  the  city  of  Albany,  trading  rela- 
tions were  established  with  the  Indians,  and  Albany  at 
once  became  a  profitable  raw  fur  market.  In  later  years 
it  developed  into  a  fur  manufacturing  center,  and  still 
later,  near  the  end  of  the  first  quarter  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  took  the  lead  in  handling  what  subsequently 
became  an  important  American  commodity.  Manipu- 
lation of  the  fur  seal  skins  began  at  the  foundation, 
dressing  and  dyeing,  and  gradually  advanced  to  what 
at  first  was  rather  crude  unhairing,  or  the  removal  of 
the  long  coarse  water-hairs.  In  the  beginning  the  skins 
were  made  up  chiefly  into  men's  caps  and  gloves  for 
wholesale  trade ;  and  though  a  number  of  concerns  were 
engaged  only  one,  George  C.  Treadwell,  as  the  result 
of  exceptional  ability  and  perseverence,  achieved  a  life- 
long success. 

George  C.  Treadwell  began  the  work  of  dressing, 
dyeing  and  manufacturing  fur  seals  at  Albany  in  1832, 
and  by  close  attention  to  every  detail  of  the  business,  and 
adherance  to  his  initial  purpose  to  turn  out  only  first 
class  goods,  steadily  extended  his  business  to  all  parts 


GEORGE   C.   TREADWELL  117 

of  North  America;  his  particular  dye,  a  rich  chestnut 
brown,  gained  an  international  reputation  for  beauty, 
fastness  and  general  excellence.  About  twenty-five 
years  later  a  demand  for  seal-skin  garments  for  ladies 
began  to  develop  in  London  as  the  consequence  of  im- 
proved unhairing,  the  dye  being  practically  the  same  in 
color  as  that  produced  at  Albany. 

George  C.  Treadwell  very  promptly  turned  his  at- 
tention to  the  manufacture  of  seal  sacques,  stoles  and 
muffs  with  gratifying  results. 

For  a  number  of  years  the  London  dye  was  lauded, 
even  by  the  trade  in  America,  as  superior  to  all  others, 
and  the  rich,  and  the  many  eager  to  appear  to  be  rich, 
accepted  the  dictum  and  paid  the  enhanced  price  to 
possess  the  imported  article.  Some  thirty  years  later  a 
new  seal  dye  was  introduced  at  Paris;  this  French  dye 
was  wholly  unlike  the  familiar  "seal  color,"  being  very 
dark,  nearly  a  true  black,  and  as  it  caught  the  popular 
fancy  of  the  time  it  very  quickly  superceded  the  London 
dye.  The  London  dyers  quite  promptly  adopted  the 
French  color,  but  Mr.  Treadwell  refused  to  change  his 
dye  in  any  particular,  considering  it  too  good  in  every 
essential  point,  to  be  abandoned.  Time  proved  the  wis- 
dom of  his  course  in  letting  well  enough  alone,  for  to  the 
end  of  his  business  career  he  continued  to  readily  market 
all  the  skins  he  could  dress  and  dye — his  aim  being,  not 
the  greatest  possible  quantity,  but  the  highest  attainable 
quality. 

The  Treadwell  exhibit  of  seal  skins  at  the  Cen- 
tennial Exposition,  Philadelphia,  1876,  was  awarded  a 
medal;  and  was  adjudged  worthy  of  three  awards  at 
the  Columbian  Exposition,  Chicago,  1893. 


ALASKA 


The  fur  trade  of  America  made  its  latest  great 
forward  bound,  both  in  volume  and  increase  in  valua- 
tion, almost  immediately  after  the  purchase  of  Rus- 
sian-America, since  known  as  Alaska,  by  the  United 
States  in  1867  at  the  bargain  price  of  $7,200,ocx). 

Alaska  was  discovered  by  Vitus  Bering,  a  Russian 
naval  officer,  in  1728,  and  in  1741  Russia  took  posses- 
sion of  the  entire  mainland,  and  conferred  upon  the  new 
territory  the  name  of  Russian-America. 

From  1 741  onward  Russian  subjects  regularly 
visited  the  Alaskan  coast  to  trade  with  the  natives,  from 
whom  they  obtained — ^by  profitable  barter  or  more 
favorable  force — ship  loads  of  sea  otter  skins,  for  which 
there  was  a  ready  sale  in  Russia  and  a  very  strong 
demand  in  China. 

The  first  permanent  settlement  in  Alaska  was 
effected  in  1783  by  the  Russian-American  Trading  Com- 
pany, on  Kodiak  Island;  a  large  stone  warehouse  and 
smaller  buildings  as  residences  were  erected,  and  the 
settlement  became  an  active  center  for  the  collection  of 

118 


ALASKA  119 

sea  and  land  otter,  fox,  mink  and  other  skins.  In  1800 
the  company  erected  a  greater  number  of  more  imposing 
buildings,  and  established  a  larger  colony  at  Sitka,  which 
became  the  capital  of  the  territory,  and  so  remained 
during  Russian  occupation. 

Pribilov,  a  Russian  navigator,  in  1786,  discovered 
oif  the  coast  of  Alaska  a  group  of  islands  which  have 
since  borne  his  name,  and  which  at  the  time  were  fre- 
quented by  hundreds  of  thousands  of  fur  seals;  there 
are  many  islands  in  the  group,  but  those  to  which  seals 
chiefly  resort  are  Saint  Paul,  Saint  George  and  Otter 
Island.  The  pelts  of  the  fur  seal,  which  are  not  natur- 
ally attractive,  did  not  rank  at  the  time  as  "fine  fur" ;  a 
few  seals,  however,  were  killed  each  season,  but  were 
regarded  as  uninteresting,  the  market  price  per  skin 
being  merely  nominal.  In  1799  the  Russian- American 
Company  was  given  the  exclusive  right  to  take  fur  seals, 
which  they  killed  in  gradually  increasing  numbers  up  to 
approximately  forty  thousand  in  a  single  year,  market- 
ing the  skins  chiefly  in  China;  prices  varied  consider- 
ably, from  the  "top  notch"  of  six  dollars,  to  less  than 
fifty  cents  per  skin  average — a  decided  difference  as 
compared  with  nearer  fifty  dollars  at  the  present  time. 

In  1867  the  United  States  purchased  Alaska,  in- 
cluding the  Pribilov  Islands,  and  the  following  year 
American  citizens  in  a  free-to-all  dash  nearly  extermin- 
ated the  fur  seals,  then  estimated  to  number  upwards  of 
five  million  individuals,  and  undoubtedly  would  have 
slaughtered  every  last  seal  on  the  rookeries  if  they  had 
possessed  sufficient  salt  to  preserve  all  the  pelts,  and  the 
necessary  vessels  for  their  transportation  to  the  States. 
The  government  intervened,  and  a  few  seals  remain  to 


w 


O       R        T       IT 


P       A 


O        C       E       A 


C        J       P       Z 
IT 


J 


lecf 


ISO* 


FUR   SEAL   ISLANDS 

The  eagle  shown  above  rather  more  than  covers  the 
area  occupied  by  the  Pribilov  Islands  were  Alaska  fur 
seals,  blue  and  white  foxes  are  obtained. 

Copper  Island  and  other  fur  seals  abound  along 
the  Siberian  coast  opposite  the  line  marked  the  "West- 
ern Boundary,  Treaty  of  1867." 

120 


ALASKA  121 

this  day — remain  in  spite  of  the  reign  of  unwisdom 
marking  their  official  oversight. 

In  1870  the  Alaska  Commercial  Company,  Senator 
John  F.  Miller,  of  California,  president,  secured  from 
the  government  of  the  United  States  a  contract  giving 
the  said  company  the  exclusive  right  to  take  fur  seals 
on  the  Pribilov  Islands  for  a  period  of  twenty  years 
from  May  i,  1870,  upon  the  following  terms:  the  com- 
pany to  pay  into  the  treasury  of  the  United  States,  as 
rental,  $55,000  per  annum,  a  revenue  tax  of  $2  on  each 
fur  seal  skin  taken  and  shipped,  62^  cents  for  each  seal 
skin  taken  and  shipped,  55  cents  per  gallon  for  each 
gallon  of  seal  oil  taken  for  sale,  and  to  supply  the  in- 
habitants of  the  islands  of  St.  Paul  and  St.  George  an- 
nually with  twenty-five  thousand  dried  salmon — an 
Alaskan  product — and  sixty  cords  of  fire-wood.  The 
Alaska  Commercial  Company  covenanted  to  take  not 
more  than  75,000  fur  seals  on  St.  Paul  Island,  nor  more 
than  25,000  fur  seals  on  St.  George  Island  in  each  year 
of  their  lease. 

In  addition  the  company  paid  the  natives  forty 
cents  each  for  skinning  seals.  On  a  catch  of  100,000 
fur  seals  per  annum,  the  above  figures  show  that  the 
cost  to  the  company  was  very  close  to  four  dollars  per 
skin.  A  government  "by  the  people  for  the  people" 
would  have  done  its  own  seal  catching,  salting  and  ship- 
ping with  a  resultant  profit  of  about  five  hundred  per 
centum  per  annum. 

The  Alaska  Commercial  Company  prior  to  the  date 
of  its  fur  sealing  contract  had  been  engaged  in  collecting 
raw  furs  from  native  Alaskans  on  the  mainland,  where 
it  established  trading  posts  in  1869,  practically  ruling 


122  ALASKA 

the  country  and  monopolizing  its  fur  trade  along  the 
coast  and  as  far  inland  as  it  was  profitable  to  transport 
provisions. 

During  the  term  of  its  lease  of  the  fur  sealing 
privilege  the  company  obtained  additional  revenue  from 
the  sale  abroad  of  blue  and  white  fox  skins  purchased 
from  the  natives  on  St.  Paul  and  St.  George  Islands  at 
forty  cents  each  for  blue  and  sixty  cents  each  for  white 
fox  skins;  the  natives  were  allowed  to  take  up  to  five 
hundred  of  these  foxes  each  winter — note  the  price. 

From  1870  to  1889,  both  dates  inclusive,  and  em- 
bracing the  term  of  its  contract  with  the  government, 
the  Alaska  Commercial  Company  took  and  shipped  i,- 
523,290  fur  seal  skins  from  St.  Paul,  and  317,177  fur 
seal  skins  from  St.  George;  a  grand  total — grand  for 
the  concern — of  1,840,467  skins. 

The  second  twenty-year  lease  of  the  Alaska  fur 
sealing  monopoly  was  keenly  competed  for  by  a  number 
of  shrewd  bidders,  including  the  first  lessees ;  the  prize 
was  secured  by  the  North  American  Commercial  Com- 
pany, whose  bid  exceeded  by  more  than  three-fold  the 
amount  received  by  the  government  under  the  preceding 
lease. 

In  the  battle  of  the  bids  the  new  concern  won  a 
triumph  over  competitors,  but  no  one  has  ever  affirmed 
that  the  victory  was  supplemented  by  great  financial 
success.  The  new  lessees  confidently  expected  to  take 
at  least  sixty  thousand  seal  skins  per  annum;  but  the 
Treasury  Department  at  Washington  suddenly  became 
intently  interested  in  the  conservation  of  the  seal  herd, 
and  assuming  that  so  large  a  catch  as  sixty  thousand 


ALASKA  128 

would  hasten  seal  extinction,  permitted  only  a  reduced 
number  of  skins  to  be  taken. 

The  North  American  Commercial  Company  was 
organized  at  San  Francisco,  April  15,  1890;  the  officers 
were:  Isaac  Liebes,  president;  Lloyd  Tevis,  vice-presi- 
dent; Ernest  C.  Cox,  secretary.  Directors:  Darius  O. 
Mills,  Herman  Liebes,  Henry  Wadsworth  and  William 
S.  Tevis. 

The  North  American  Commercial  Company  had  a 
stormy  sea  to  navigate  under  its  twenty-year  lease;  the 
catch  it  was  permitted  to  take  was  reduced  by  the  officials 
at  Washington  to  fifteen  thousand  skins  in  a  year,  was 
raised  to  thirty  thousand,  then  reduced  to  twenty  thou- 
sand, again  to  fifteen  thousand,  and  on  down  to  seven 
thousand  five  hundred,  with  a  demoralizing  effect  on  the 
market,  and  the  final  subsidence  of  seal  skin  as  a  leading 
fashionable  fur.  The  company  experienced  further 
trouble,  a  great  deal  of  it,  in  consequence  of  differences 
of  opinion  with  officialdom  regarding  the  proper  amount 
accruing  to  the  government  from  year  to  year,  with 
claims  and  counter  claims,  and  an  endless  war  of  words. 

When  the  lease  expired  at  the  end  of  the  sealing 
season  of  1909,  there  was  no  desire  to  renew  it,  and  no 
attempt  to  seek  new  lessees — politics  and  business  had 
not  mixed,  and  politics  was  master  in  the  matter. 

The  government  assumed  control  of  the  catch  in 
19 10,  and  for  the  past  five  years,  19 13- 17,  the  number 
of  Alaska  fur  seals  annually  killed  has  been  about 
twenty-five  hundred,  the  number  required  to  supply  food 
for  the  natives  on  the  islands  of  St.  Paul  and  St.  George. 

On  April  21,  19 10,  the  government  took  charge  of 
all  affairs  on  the  Pribilov  Islands,  including  the  detailed 


124  ALASKA 

management  of  the  fur  seals,  blue  and  white  foxes,  and 
the  business  of  marketing  their  skins. 

In  19 10  a  total  of  12,920  fur  seals  were  killed  on 
the  islands,  and  their  skins  were  sold  through  C.  M. 
Lampson  &  Company,  London,  December  16,  1910,  for 
the  gross  sum  of  $435,083.59,  an  average  of  $33.68  per 
skin;  the  net  amount — less  insurance,  freight,  disburse- 
ments and  commissions — received  by  the  government 
was  $403,946.94.  If  the  lease  of  the  privilege  of  taking 
seal  skins  had  been  continued,  the  government  would 
in  19 10  have  received  $131,007. 

In  191 1,  the  second  year  under  government  control, 
12,002  seal  skins  were  taken;  these  were  sold  in  London 
by  C.  M.  Lampson  &  Company  on  December  15,  191 1, 
for  the  gross  amount  of  $416,992.40,  an  average  of 
$34.74  per  skin;  the  net  receipts  by  the  government  were 
$385,862.28,  or  $263,141.83  more  than  it  would  have 
received  under  the  leasing  system — or  government 
liberality  to  a  favored  few. 

In  1913  fur  seal  killing  on  the  Pribilov  Islands  solely 
for  the  pelts  was  discontinued  under  agreement  with  the 
government  of  England,  Japan  and  Russia,  in  order  to 
afford  the  seals  an  opportunity  to  multiply. 

A  limited  number  of  seals  have  since  been  killed 
each  year  to  supply  the  natives  on  the  islands  with 
fresh  and  salted  meat  pending  the  annual  return  of  the 
herd.  All  explorers,  white  men,  have  eaten  seal  meat, 
and  they  pronounce  it  good.  The  high  cost  of  living  in 
the  states  might  be  reduced  by  canning  seal  flesh  when 
the  next  larger  kill  is  made  in  1918. 

During  the  summer  of  that  year,  191 3,  twenty-five 
hundred  fur  seals  were  killed  to  furnish  flesh  food  for 


ALASKA  125 

the  natives;  1,898  of  these  seal  skins  were  sold  at  auction 
in  the  raw  at  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  on  December  16,  1913, 
for  a  total  of  $55,156,  or  an  average  of  $29.06  per  skin. 

A  total  of  1,959  dressed  and  dyed  fur  seal  skins 
was  sold  at  auction  in  St.  Louis  on  January  29,  19 17, 
with  the  following  results : 

Middlings,  12;  middlings  and  smalls,  21;  total,  33 
skins,  sold  in  one  lot,  brought  $60.00  each. 

Middlings  and  smalls,  50  skins,  brought  $56.00 
each. 

Smalls,  391  skins,  sold  for  $53.00  each. 

Large  pups,  811  skins,  average  $48.00  each. 

Middling  pups,  510  skins,  average  $43.50  each. 

Small  pups,  42  skins,  average  $40.00  each. 

Mixed  sizes,  No.  3  skins,  71  pelts,  average  $25.00 
each. 

Cut  skins,  mixed  sizes,  51  skins,  average  $46.00. 

Practically  the  same  prices  as  at  London  on  the 
same  date. 

When  the  government  took  charge  of  the  Pribilov 
Islands  it  assumed  the  general  control  of  the  blue  and 
white  foxes  thereon.  During  the  winter  of  1910-1911 
under  government  oversight  twenty  white  and  three 
hundred  and  seventy-one  blue  fox  skins  were  collected; 
these  pelts  were  sold  at  public  auction  by  C.  M.  Lampson 
&  Company  in  London,  March  18-19,  1912,  for  the 
gross  amount  of  $16,563.55;  the  average  for  the  white 
fox  skins  was  $9.71,  and  for  the  blue  fox  pelts  $44.12. 

Foxes  of  all  colors  are  found  on  the  mainland  of 
Alaska;  shipments  of  skins  from  Alaska  in  191 1  in- 
cluded :  black  fox,  i ;  blue  fox,  from  the  mainland,  929 ; 
silver  fox,  82;  white  fox,  from  the  mainland,  8,063; 


BLUB    FOX 


cross  fox,  402;  red  fox,  7,499.  Other  peltries  shipped 
during  the  same  year  comprised  beaver,  marten,  ermine, 
wolverine,  wolf,  mink,  lynx,  otter,  squirrel,  muskrat, 
black,  brown,  cinnamon  and  polar  bear. 

Bears  in  Alaska  are  officially,  and  peculiarly, 
grouped  in  three  classes  with  reference  to  their  capture. 
It  is  unlawful  to  kill  the  polar  bear  at  any  time — and 
yet  313  polar  bear  skins  were  permitted  to  be  shipped 
out  of  Alaska  in  191 1. 

The  black  bear  is  c4assed  as  a  game  animal,  and  is 
under  the  charge  of  the  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey  of 
the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

The  brown  bear  is  classed  as  a  fur-bearer,  and  may 
not  be  lawfully  killed  from  June  i  to  August  31  in  each 
year. 

The  Pribilov  Islands,  very  nearly  in  the  center  of 
Bering  Sea,  are  one  hundred  and  eighty  miles  from  the 
mainland ;  the  largest  of  these  islands,  St.  Paul,  is  about 
twelve  miles  in  length  by  six  miles  in  breadth ;  St.  George 
Island  is  about  ten  miles  in  length  and  somewhat  less 
than  three  miles  in  breadth  in  average ;  the  other  islands 
in  the  group  are  much  smaller.    Hunting  and  trapping 

136 


BLACK    BEAR 


127 


128 


ALASKA 


on  any  and  all  of  them  is  restricted  by  law  to  natives, 
or  white  men  who  have  married  native  women. 

Catch  for  191 7  as  follows:  Fur  seals  4,882,  blue 
fox  567,  white  fox  39. 

Fur-bearing  animals  of  Alaska,  other  than  the  fur 
seal  and  sea  otter,  include  ermine,  marten,  mink,  silver 
fox,  blue  fox,  cross  fox,  red  fox,  black  fox,  grey  fox, 
land  otter,  beaver,  lynx,  muskrat,  wolf,  black  and  brown 
bear  and  wolverine. 

Laws  governing  trapping  fur-bearing  animals,  and 
shipment  of  their  pelts,  are  effectively  and  impartially 
administered  by  the  Bureau  of  Fisheries  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Commerce. 

A  part  of  St.  Paul  Island  is  shown  below. 


^eal  €tniui 

Following  the  lease  of  the  fur  sealing  privilege 
in  1870,  the  fur  seals  on  the  islands  of  St.  Paul  and 
St.  George  were  counted  by  "triangulation" — that  is 
the  islands  were  plotted  by  imaginary  lines  in  tri- 
i  angles,  and  the  seals  within  the  lines  of  various  sec- 
tions were  counted  as  near  as  could  be,  and  estimates 
of  all  the  seals  were  obtained — the  total  approximating 
five  million. 

In  191 5  a  careful  count  of  the  fur  seals  on  the 
islands  gave  a  total  of  363,872  seals — the  remnant 
that  had  survived  excessive  killing  on  land  and  sea, 
and  the  genial  fostering  care  under  national  interna- 
tional and  delusional  protection.  The  census  for  19 16 
showed  an  increase  of  53,450 — providing  there  were  no 
very  great  errors  in  the  count  of  either  years.  The  total 
given  for  1916  is  417,328  seals  of  all  ages,  as  follows: 
Breeding  cows,  116,977;  newly  born  pups,  116,977; 
bulls,  6,131;  two  year  old  seals,  48460;  yearlings, 
67,291,  bachelors,  61,492. 

In  1918,  when  the  closed  season  provided  by  in- 
ternational agreement  ends,  the  government  will  re- 
sume the  killing  of  Alaska  seals  for  their  pelts ;  pres- 
ent indications  are  that  the  article  will  be  in  somewhat 
stronger  fashionable  request  at  that  time,  or  the  fol- 
lowing year  when  the  catch  of  1918  will  have  been 
prepared,  dressed  and  dyed,  for  manufacture. 


1S9 


ALASKA  SEAL  LEASES 

On  July  20,  1870,  bids  were  opened  at  Washing- 
ton for  the  exclusive  privilege  of  taking  fur  seals  on 
the  islands  of  St.  Paul  and  St.  George,  Alaska,  for  a 
term  of  twenty  years  from  May  i,  1870,  as  follows: — 

S.  E.  Morgan  &  Co.,  of  Norristown,  Pennsyl- 
vania, $75,000  per  annum. 

John  H.  Bradford,  of  New  York  City,  $76,550  per 
annum. 

J.  W.  Raymond,  of  San  Francisco,  $96,000  per 
annum. 

C.  M.  Lockwood,  of  Portland,  Oregon,  $127,000 
per  annum. 

Alaska  Commercial  Company,  of  San  Francisco, 
$65,000  per  annum. 

John  Barnett,  of  Washington,  $156,000  per 
annum. 

John  M.  Davidson,  of  Washington,  $87,000  per 
annum. 

Louis  C.  Welton,  of  New  York,  $96,000  per 
annum. 

Sellman  K.  Hannigan,  of  Terre  Haute,  $73,000 
per  annum. 

J.  Adams  &  Son,  of  Philadelphia,  $105,000  per 
annum. 

J.  C.  Hastings,  of  San  Francisco,  $163,000  per 
annum. 

Thomas  W.  Sweeney,  of  Philadelphia,  $111,000 
per  annum. 

Louis  Goldstone,  of  San  Francisco,  for  Finchel  & 
Company,  Taylor  &  Bendel  and  the  American-Rus- 

180 


ALASKA   SEAL  LEASES  131 

sian  Commercial  Company,  all  of  San  Francisco, 
$55,000  per  annum  for  rental  of  islands,  $2.00  per 
skin  and  62^/2  cents  tax  per  skin  for  each  skin  shipped, 
and  55  cents  per  gallon  for  all  oil  shipped  from  the 
islands,  the  total  amount  of  this  bid,  exclusive  of  oil 
which  could  not  be  known  in  advance,  was  $317,500 
per  annum — the  bid,  and  all  others,  being  based  on 
a  catch  of  one  hundred  thousand  seals  per  annum. 

The  lease  was  awarded  to  the  Alaska  Commercial 
Company  on  the  terms  of  the  bid  by  Louis  Goldstone, 
but  just  how  the  officials  at  Washington,  the  fearsome 
deed;  performed,  Congressional,  Senatorial  and  indi- 
vidual investigations  have  never  made  clear. 

Members  of  the  Company  were:  U.  S.  Senator 
John  F.  Miller,  President;  H.  M.  Hutchinson,  Leo- 
pold Boskowitz,  Louis  Sloss,  Lewis  Gerstle,  John 
Parrott,  Ebenezer  Morgan,  C.  A.  Williams,  William 
Kohl,  Samuel  Willets,  August  Wasserman,  Simon 
Greenewald,  Gustav  Niebaum. 

The  Alaska  Commercial  Company  had  by  far  the 
best  of  the  fur  seal  skin  business  under  American  rule, 
and  understood  the  game  as  a  revenue  producer;  in 
their  twenty  years  lordship  they  garnered  nearly  two 
million  large  and  small  seal  skins,  and  a  profit  of 
something  like  eighteen  million  dollars — and  wanted 
a  second  lease  of  twenty  years. 

The  bids  for  the  second  lease  of  the  Alaska  fur 
sealing  privilege  were  opened  at  Washington,  May  I, 
1890,  for  the  term  of  twenty  years  from  May  i,  1890, 
as  follows: — 

American  Fishing  and  Trading  Company,  a  Cal- 
ifornia corporation,  $305,000,  and  additionally,  $4.12 


182  ALASKA   SEAL  LEASES 

for  each  fur  seal  skin  taken  and  shipped  from  the 
islands. 

North  American  Trading  Company,  a  West  Vir- 
ginia corporation,  $55,000  per  annual  as  rental,  $2.00 
revenue  tax,  an  additional  $4.50  for  each  skin  taken 
and  shipped — total  estimated  at  $445,000  per  annum. 

The  Pacific  Steam  Whaling  Company,  a  Cali- 
fornia corporation,  $50,000  per  annum  rental,  and  $7.15 
for  each  fur  seal  skin  taken  and  shipped  from  the 
islands. 

Alaska  Commercial  Company,  of  San  Francisco, 
$50,000  rental  per  annum,  a  revenue  tax  of  $2.00  and 
$4.50  additional  for  each  fur  seal  skin  taken  and 
shipped  from  the  islands. 

Atlantic  and  Pacific  Company,  by  Charles  H. 
Tenney,  New  York,  $55,000  rental  per  annum,  and 
6.123/2  cents  for  each  fur  seal  skin  taken  and  shipped 
from  the  islands. 

North  American  Commercial  Company,  an  Illi- 
nois corporation,  56,000  rental  per  annum,  revenue 
tax  of  $2.00  and  a  bonus  of  $5.11  for  each  fur  seal  skin 
taken  and  shipped. 

North  American  Commercial  Company,  of  San 
Francisco,  a  California  corporation,  annual  rental  $57,- 
100,  revenue  tax  of  $2.00  and  $8.25  for  each  fur  seal 
skin  taken  and  shipped  from  the  islands. 

The  North  American  Commercial  Company,  of 
San  Francisco,  was  awarded  the  lease  March  12,  1890. 
Alaska  fur  seals  were  under  the  charge  of  the  Sec- 
retary of  the  Treasury  from  1869  to  19 10,  at  which 
time  they  were  committed  to  the  care  of  the  Secretary 


ALASKAN   SEAL  LEASES  133 

of  Commerce  and  Labor,  and  at  present  the  Secretary 
of  Commerce. 

ARBITRATION 

United  States  officials,  seconded  by  the  officious, 
in  1890  unwisely  broached  the  claim  of  absolute  own- 
ership in  the  fur  seals,  not  only  during  the  limited 
period  when  the  animals  were  upon  the  Pribilov  Islands, 
but  all  the  time,  and  wheresoever  the  pinipeds  might 
be  found. 

The  government  finally  became  so  insistent  in  an- 
nouncing the  claim  that  the  entire  matter  was  formally, 
in  1893,  submitted  to  arbitration  before  an  international 
board  sitting  at  Paris,  Baron  de  Courcel  presiding;  the 
decision,  handed  down  August  15,  1893,  was  adverse 
to  the  United  States.  On  the  fifth  point,  the  main  con- 
tention, the  decision  read:  "We  decide  and  determine 
that  the  United  States  have  no  right  to  the  protection 
of  or  property  in  the  seals  frequenting  the  islands  of 
the  United  States  in  Bering  Sea,  when  found  outside 
the  ordinary  three-mile  limit." 


'^^S:      \^R 


Fwr  Seal. 


Job,  some  thousands  of  years  ago,  the  precise  date 
is  not  surely  known,  asked  the  profound  question,  "What 
is  man?"  If  he  had  been  as  well  acquainted  with  the 
"brutes  that  perish"  as  he  unquestionably  was  familiar 
with  the  remote  and  mighty  stars  and  constellations,  he 
might  have  asked  a  second  and  equally  unanswerable 
question,  by  adding,  and  what  is  the  fur  seal?  for  it  is 
a  surpassingly  strange  creature  involved  in  manifold 
mystery  which  man,  notwithstanding  his  ability  to 
"solve  doubts,"  has  hitherto  been  unable  to  unravel. 

Whither  it  cometh  and  whence  it  goeth;  the  pur- 
pose of  its  being;  its  return  to  and  departure  from  cer- 
tain places,  year  after  year  at  almost  exactly  the  same 
dates,  apparently  for  the  sole  purpose  of  bringing  forth 
and  nurturing  its  young  to  perpetuate  the  species ;  why 
they  did  not  nearly  fill  the  seas  long  since,  the  increase 
at  the  time  of  discovery  being  about  a  million  a  year, 
and  their  food  supply  being  practically  inexhaustible — 
these  are  parts  of  an  interesting  problem  for  which  there 
is  no  solution. 

During  the  breeding  season  the  fur  seal  makes  its 

134 


FUR   SEAL  186 

home  on  rocky,  barren  islands,  large  or  small,  with  grad- 
ually rising  shores  over  which  it  can  move  with  moderate 
effort,  and  where  a  foggy  condition  prevails ;  the  animal 
having  flippers  instead  of  feet  is  an  indifferent  traveler 
on  land  and  progresses  by  a  series  of  short  jumps  inter- 
rupted by  frequent  halts  for  rest ;  these  resorts  are  also 
apparently  selected  with  reference  to  the  average  tem- 
perature, as  the  fur  seal  prefers  a  moderately  cool 
climate,  and  is  manifestly  unpleasantly  affected  by  a 
temperature  above  fifty  degrees. 

Fur  seals  are  annually  first  seen  at  sea  in  April 
off  the  northern  shore  of  Vancouver  Island,  and  the 
northwestern  coast  of  the  State  of  Washington,  pro- 
ceeding southward  along  the  Pacific  Coast  of  the  United 
States  on  their  way  to  their  several  breeding  stations 
or  rookeries. 

Leaders  of  the  herd,  old  male  seals,  begin  to  arrive 
at  the  islands  of  Saint  Paul  and  Saint  George,  Bering 
Sea,  about  the  first  of  May,  some  two  or  three  weeks 
in  advance  of  the  females  and  younger  males.  Though 
preferring  a  low  or  moderate  temperature,  fur  seals 
never  "haul  up"  on  ice,  and  if  ice  remains  along  the 
shore  at  the  time  of  their  arrival,  they  remain  in  the 
water  until  it  disappears,  and  then  draw  out  on  the  land, 
select  their  rookeries  and  await  the  coming  of  their 
mates.  Many  fierce  battles  are  fought  by  the  old  bulls 
in  their  struggle  to  maintain  possession  of  selected  posi- 
tions, called  rookeries,  upon  which,  when  fully  secured, 
they  remain  continuously  for  more  than  three  months 
without  food  or  drink. 

The  color  of  the  males  when  they  emerge  from  the 
water  is  a  dull  brown  sprinkled  with  grey;  when  dry 


FUR   SEAL— OLD    BULL. 


the  fur  is  much  lighter  on  all  parts  of  the  body ;  females 
are  not  so  dark  as  the  males,  the  fur  upon  the  back  of 
the  head,  neck  and  down  the  spine  being  a  bright  steely 
blue,  modulating  into  lighter  shades,  approaching  white, 
on  the  sides  and  abdomen. 

Bachelor  seals,  or  yearlings,  herd  apart  in  large 
numbers  far  from  the  breeding  stations,  as  the  old  bulls 
will  not  permit  them  to  approach  the  rookeries ;  the  seals 
killed  for  their  pelts  on  St.  Paul  and  St.  George  Islands 
are  selected  from  the  bachelors. 

136 


FUR   SEAL  137 

Seals  at  the  time  of  birth,  and  until  one  year  old, 
are  called  pups;  when  born  they  are  black,  and  are 
known  as  black  pups;  as  they  advance  in  age  the  color 
changes  to  lighter  hues,  and  they  are  designated  as 
silvery  or  grey  pups. 

The  territory  now  known  as  Alaska,  which  em- 
braces the  Pribilov  Islands,  was  purchased  from  Russia 
by  the  United  States  in  1867  for  $7,200,000,  which  ought 
to  be  considered  a  nominal  price  as  it  amounted  to  little 
more  than  one  dollar  per  seal,  not  to  mention  land, 
timber,  salmon  and  gold,  each  individually  of  still  greater 
value  than  the  seals  at  a  dollar  a  head,  as  even  that  small 
amount  could  not  be  realized,  cash  or  credit,  until  they 
were  caught;  before  November  they  spread  their  flip- 
pers and  flee  from  United  States  territory. 

In  mid-autumn,  surely  before  November,  all  the 
seals,  "every  blessed  one,"  mobilize  and  depart  from 
their  summer  island  homes,  pass  out  into  the  Atlantic 
and  speed  away  southward  into  the  Pacific  Ocean  and 
in  a  few  days  completely  disappear;  this  is  their  in- 
variable annual  custom.  The  land  or  sea  to  which  they 
wend  their  way  is  wholly  unknown  to  man,  is  one  of  the 
great  mysteries  of  the  ages;  their  preference  for  a 
moderately  cool  climate  and  ice-free  water,  impresses 
the  conviction  that  the  fur  seals  are  acquainted  with  a 
large  area  in  which  millions  of  seals  may  remain  un- 
observed for  five  months  or  more  out  of  each  year,  a 
glorious  sea,  where  rocky  isles  and  g^eat  schools  of  fish 
abound,  a  wondrous  retreat  somewhere  in  the  Southern 
Hemisphere  perfectly  adapted  to  the  welfare  of  seals 
of  all  ages,  and  particularly  little  fellows  only  six 
months  old. 


138  FUR   SEAL 

In  the  summer  of  1868,  the  year  following  the  pur- 
chase of  Alaska  by  the  United  States,  good  American 
seal  seekers  made  a  raid  on  the  islands  of  St.  Paul  and 
St.  George  for  the  purpose  of  gathering  in  the  entire 
herd,  and  they  were  fairly  successful,  known  sales  and 
shipments  of  skins  showing  that  upwards  of  four  hun- 
dred thousand  seals  were  killed;  the  slaughter  would 
doubtless  have  exceeded  a  million  except  for  lack  of 
labor,  salt  and  shipping  facilities. 

To  prevent  the  extermination  of  the  animals  in  a 
very  few  years  the  government  took  charge  of  the 
islands  early  in  1869,  and  prohibited  all  persons  from 
landing  upon  or  approaching  the  shore  within  a  specified 
distance. 

Numerous  methods  of  regulating  the  catch  were 
considered  by  the  authorities  in  control  without  result, 
and  finally  the  entire  matter  was  referred  to  the  Con- 
gress and  that  body  decided  that  the  government  should 
lease  the  privilege  of  taking  fur  seals,  one  hundred  thou- 
sand skins  per  annum,  for  twenty  years,  to  the  person 
or  persons  making  the  most  favorable  offer. 

The  Alaska  Commercial  Company,  of  San  Fran- 
cisco, of  which  Senator  Miller  of  California  was  presi- 
dent, was  awarded  the  lease  in  July,  1870,  for  a  term 
of  twenty  years,  and"  at  once  took  formal  possession 
and  began  operations ;  comprehensive  laws  were  passed 
prohibiting  any  one  else  from  killing  any  seals  on  the 
islands,  except  the  natives  who  were  allowed  to  kill  a 
certain  number  for  food,  a  privilege  which  they  continue 
to  enjoy. 

The  Alaska  Commercial  Company  had  a  "good 
thing,"  and  knew  it,  as  the  record  shows. 


FUR   SEAL  139 

The  total  catch  of  seal  skins  from  1870  to  1889, 
both  years  inclusive,  was  1,856,240;  annual  average, 
92,812  skins. 

The  cost  to  the  Alaska  Commercial  Company  was : 
Rental  of  islands,  $55,000  per  annum,  paid  to  govern- 
ment regardless  of  number  of  seals  taken;  royalty  to 
government,  $2.62  per  skin;  aleuts  for  killing,  skinning 
and  handling,  40  cents  per  skin ;  shipping  expenses,  about 
37/^  cents  per  skin;  totals,  average  and  gross,  as 
follows : 

Royalty,  average  per  annum,  $242,631.50. 
Rental,  average  per  annum,  55,000.00 
Aleuts,  average  per  annum,  37,124.80 
Shipping,  average  per  annum,      34,804.50 

Gross  totals  for  twenty  years,  term  of  lease: 

Royalty  to  government $4,872,630 

Rental  to  government 1,100,000 

Aleuts  for  killing,  etc 742,496 

Shipping  expenses 696,090 

Grand  total $7,41 1.216 

The  average  cost  per  skin  to  the  company  is  thus 
shown  to  be  $3.95. 

The  company  under  the  terms  of  the  lease  was  per- 
mitted to  take  one  hundred  thousand  skins  per  annum, 
and  aimed  to  do  so,  except  in  1883,  when  only  seventy- 
five  thousand  seals  were  slaughtered;  in  each  of  the 
other  years  some  of  the  skins  were  rejected  as  below 
grade. 

The  average  price  realized  for  the  skins  by  the 


140 


FUR   SEAL 


company  at  public  sale  in  London  was  several  times 
$3.95,  it  being  of  record  that  their  profits  for  the  twenty 
years  amounted  to  $18,753,911,  or  nearly  $i,400,cx)0  for 
each  of  the  fourteen  shares  comprising  the  capital  stock 
of  the  concern;  in  1882,  it  is  asserted,  a  dividend  of 
$75,000  per  share  was  realized. 

The  government  received  during  the  twenty  years, 
net,  $5,264,230. 

During  the  term  of  the  first  lease  the  proportion 
of  seals  killed  on  the  two  islands  was,  St.  Paul,  80,000; 
St.  George,  20,000;  all  the  killing  and  skinning  was, 
and  is,  done  by  Aleuts,  the  work  usually  being  conducted 
during  the  first  three  weeks  of  July. 


FUR    SEAL    SKIN.    NATURAL 


SEAIi   KJUANa   STATION    ON    ST.    PAUL    ISLAND 

SEAL  KILLING 

Early  in  the  morning  the  men  who  are  to  do  the 
killing  run  along  the  beach  between  the  water  and  the 
bachelor  seals  that  have  hauled  up  on  land,  and  loudly 
shouting  and  jumping  hither  and  thither  frighten  the 
seals  and  cause  them  to  move  forward  inland  toward 
the  killing  station,  about  three  miles  in  the  rear  of  the 
rookeries ;  this  interior  point  is  chosen  to  avoid  alarming 
the  breeding  and  other  seals,  which  would  probably 
leave  the  islands  at  once,  or  fail  to  revisit  them,  if  the 
killing  were  done  near  shore;  the  drive  is  conducted 
slowly  and  with  frequent  pauses,  as  the  unusual  exertion 
of  land  travel  causes  the  seals  to  become  overheated,  a 
condition  fatal  to  the  animals  and  detrimental  to  the  fur. 
On  arriving  at  the  killing  ground  the  seals  are  allowed 
to  rest  and  cool  off,  and  the  Aleuts  effect  the  killing  by 
striking  the  animals  on  the  head  with  a  short  stout  club ; 
when  about  fifty  are  killed  the  skins  are  taken  off,  and 
removed  to  the  salting  houses  and  salted — the  skins 
are  laid  flat  and  the  leather  side  is  covered  with  about 
two  pounds  of  salt ;  after  salting  the  skins  are  piled  one 

141 


142  SEAL  KILLING 

Upon  another  and  left  thus  for  from  ten  to  twenty  days 
to  cure,  and  are  then  tied  in  bundles  of  two  skins  each, 
fur  side  out.  These  bundles  are  packed  in  casks  and 
shipped  to  San  Francisco,  thence  by  rail  to  New  York, 
and  then  by  steamer  to  London  for  sale  at  auction — this 
was  the  procedure  down  to  191 3,  in  which  year  the  gov- 
ernment arranged  to  sell  the  skins  in  the  United  States 
instead  of  London ;  but  near  the  announced  date  of  sale 
withdrew  part  of  the  collection. 

The  fur  of  the  seal,  now  held  at  high  figures  in  con- 
sequence of  comparative  scarcity,  and  checked  from  go- 
ing much  higher  on  account  of  the  fact  that  for  some 
years  past  it  has  been  an  exclusive  rather  than  a  fash- 
ionable article,  owes  its  rise  in  favor  and  value  wholly 
to  the  effective  manipulation  of  modern  dressers  and 
dyers,  and  more  definitely  to  the  radical  improvement 
wrought  in  its  appearance  by  a  simple  machine  which 
perfectly  unhairs  the  skins,  or  clips  out  all  the  coarse, 
"water-hairs,"  leaving  only  the  soft,  rich  fur.  Follow- 
ing the  perfecting  of  this  transforming  process,  seal 
skin,  which  formerly  was  used  only  in  limited  amount 
in  the  manufacture  of  cheap  articles,  became  very  popu- 
lar in  Europe  and  America,  greatly  advanced  in  price, 
and  the  very  large  annual  collection  was  readily  con- 
sumed. 

BRANDING 

For  two  or  three  seasons  as  a  means  of  proving  that 
the  fur  seals  were  the  property  of  the  United  States, 
g^eat  official  minds  conceived  and  put  into  execution  at 
St.  Paul  Island  the  brilliant  (blazing)  scheme  of  brand- 
ing tender  young  seals  with  hot  irons;  it  was  assumed 


BRANDING  143 

that  these  burned  seals  would  be  gathered  in  by  pelagic 
sealers  a  year  later,  that  the  brand  would  constitute  a 
damage  to  the  skin  sufficiently  serious  to  cause  pelagic 
sealers  to  cease  operations — but  "the  villains  still  pur- 
sued 'em."  The  baby  seals  that  survived  the  barbarous 
branding  may  have  been  lost  at  sea,  or  they  may  have 
selected  rookeries  known  only  to  themselves ;  the  scorch- 
ing idea,  however,  was  a  marvel  in  the  estimation  of  the 
mind  maturing  it — a  "burning  shame"  in  the  opinion 
of  others. 

CONTRABAND 

Immediately  after  the  act  prohibiting  American 
citizens  from  killing  seals  in  the  north  Pacific  Ocean  and 
Bering  Sea  became  law  on  December  29,  1897,  it  was 
discovered  that  only  Alaska  seal  skins,  and  articles  made 
thereof,  could  be  imported  into  the  United  States;  and 
that  all  other  fur  seal  skins,  or  manufactures  of  other 
than  Alaska  fur  seal  skins,  imported  into  the  United 
States  should  be  seized  and  destroyed.  Fur  merchants 
who  had  in  the  regular  course  of  business  purchased 
valuable  lots  of  pelagic  fur  seal  skins  long  before  this 
law  was  passed — it  was  never  discussed — had  to  humbly 
plead  for  special  dispensations  to  obtain  possessions  of 
their  property  which  was  in  London  for  dressing  and 
dyeing,  under  the  same  conditions  as  during  each  of  the 
preceding  forty  years ;  but  an  American  citizen  return- 
ing from  abroad,  though  bringing  in  only  a  seal  skin 
cap  had  to  suffer  confiscation  of  the  article,  tmless  he 
was  able  to  prove  that  the  cap  was  made  of  skins  taken 
on  the  Pribilov  Islands. 

This  act,  known  as  the  "Davis  Law,"  was  in  itself 


144  CONTRABAND 

fairly  harmless,  but  the  departmental  regulations  under 
which  it  was  administered  were  fearsome,  so  very  vicious 
and  unlike  the  law  that  they  had  to  be  changed  a  number 
of  times  in  order  to  wriggle  through  conflicting  condi- 
tions and  perverse  interpretations. 

This  worse  than  foolish  act,  rushed  through  the 
Congress  and  administered  adlihitum  by  one  department 
of  the  government,  was  seemingly  meant  to  spite  Can- 
adian sealers  for  not  abandoning  a  profitable  industry 
to  others,  it  being  assumed  that  as  about  seventy-five  per 
cent  of  the  annual  catch  of  seal  skins  was  required  for 
consumption  in  the  United  States,  the  exclusion  from 
that  market  of  all  seal  skins  except  Alaskas,  would  make 
it  difficult  for  the  Canadians  to  market  their  catch  even 
at  reduced  figures,  and  that  the  Alaskas,  owing  to  in- 
creased competition,  would  materially  advance  in  price. 
It  did  not  work  out  that  way;  the  entire  collection  of 
Alaskas,  the  demand  exceeding  the  supply,  was  taken 
for  the  United  States ;  and  as  seal  skin  was  fashionable 
in  Europe  the  Canadian  sealers  had  that  market  to  them- 
selves, and  readily  sold  all  their  skins  at  satisfactory 
prices. 

POLITICAL   POTHER 

An  agreement  was  entered  into  between  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain  in  1893  defining  the  area  at 
sea,  and  the  time,  in  which  pelagic  sealing  might  law- 
fully be  conducted. 

Four  years  later  a  law  was  enacted  by  Congress 
prohibiting  American  citizens  from  taking  any  fur  seals 
in  the  waters  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  north  of  thirty-five 
degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  including  Bering  Sea. 


POLITICAL   POTHER  146 

To  render  agreements,  enactments  and  monopoly 
effective  during  all  the  years  of  inefficient  rule,  the  gov- 
ernment had  to  incur  the  expense  of  patroling  Bering 
Sea  with  gunboats  and  revenue  cutters  (appropriately 
named  vessels)  and  as  the  years  passed  the  seals  con- 
tinuously decreased  in  number. 

Under  the  masterful  muddle  of  government  con- 
trol, from  the  date  of  purchase  in  1867  to  the  present 
moment,  the  fur  seal  has  been  the  cause  of  countless 
controversies — local,  territorial,  national,  international, 
petty,  personal,  unbusinesslike,  undiplomatic,  perpetual; 
and  the  end  is  not  yet. 

Previously  friendly  relations  between  the  United 
States,  England  and  Canada  have  been  sadly  strained; 
and  upon  occasion  Japan  has  shared  in  the  same  kindly 
attentions.  American  citizens  have  been  prohibited  by 
law  from  touching  an  American  seal  on  land  or  sea 
under  penalty  of  two  hundred  dollars  fine  or  six  months 
imprisonment,  and  loss  of  property  for  each  touch ;  and 
further  have  been  forbidden  to  buy,  use  or  have  in  pos- 
session ^ny  pelagic  seal  skin,  even  the  smallest  visible 
piece,  under  terror  of  confiscation.  Tons  of  pure  paper 
and  many  pounds  of  ink,  paid  for  by  a  subject  people, 
have  been  wantonly  wasted  at  Washington  in  printing 
reports,  speeches,  views  and  other  diflFuse  words  on  the 
seal  as  a  wild  animal,  exclusive  American  property,  and 
many  other  things  no  better  understood  than  the  habits 
of  builders  of  Martian  canals. 

The  poor  seal  has  been  cruelly  branded,  indifferently 
slaughtered  on  land,  transferred  from  one  monopoly  to 
another,  and  otherwise  handled  without  gloves  or  com- 
mon sense,  for  the  avowed  purpose  of  perpetuating  it  as 


146  POLITICAL   POTHER 

an  asset  of  great  value — to  the  lessees.  It  is  not  strange, 
in  view  of  the  facts  that  so  few  seals  survive,  but  that 
any  linger  is  a  wonder  indeed.  In  1867,  when  the  gov- 
ernment took  possession  by  virtue  of  purchase,  it  was 
estimated  that  about  4,700,000  fur  seals  were  enjoying 
good  health  on  the  islands,  and  the  number  was 
practically  the  same  when  the  government  leased  the 
privilege  of  killing  100,000  seals  a  year  for  twenty  years 
from  May  i,  1870;  twenty  years  later  another  careful 
estimate  placed  the  number  on  the  islands  at  1,000,000 
seals — a  marvel,  surely,  as  only  2,000,000  had  been 
killed,  and  there  should  have  been  a  natural  increase  of 
about  300,000  seals  per  annum  for  the  period  of  twenty 
years.  On  the  expiration  of  the  second  lease,  in  19 10, 
it  was  officially  reported  that  the  number  of  seals  on  the 
islands  did  not  exceed  133,000,  though  the  lessees  had 
killed,  officially,  only  345,449  seals. 

The  count  for  191 5  placed  the  total  at  about  300,- 
000,  including  old  and  young ;  88,000  seals  were  born  on 
the  island  during  the  season. 

TOTAL   SLAUGHTER 

The  counted  skins  shipped  from  the  islands  of  St. 
Paul  and  St.  George  do  not  show  the  number  of  seals 
killed,  as  many  skins  are  cut  and  otherwise  damaged  in 
skinning,  others  are  injured  by  overheating  and  from 
other  causes,  and  all  such  skins  are  rejected;  during  the 
twenty  years  of  the  first  lease  2,269  skins  were  rejected 
on  St.  George  Island,  and  18,124  on  St.  Paul  Island  as 
damaged  and  15,705  as  destroyed  in  taking  the  catch. 
The  highest  average  price  realized  by  the  lessees  in  a 
single  season  was  $22.25  P^^  skin,  lowest  $8.75,  and  the 


TOTAL   SLAUGHTER  147 

average  for  the  twenty  years  $14.02 — which  means  a 
total  of  a  little  more  than  $27,000,000. 

Under  the  second  lease  for  twenty  years  345,449 
skins  were  shipped,  an  annual  average  of  17,272;  the 
highest  average  price  realized  was  $37;  the  concern  is 
credited  with  making  a  profit  of  $5,000,000. 

The  catch  of  pelagic  seals  for  forty  years,  1873  to 
191 2,  reached  a  total  of  968,586,  an  average  of  24,212. 
Copper  Island  seal  skins  to  the  number  of  288,732  have 
been  marketed  since  1891 ;  during  the  same  period  the 
supply  from  other  and  less  important  rookeries  has  ap- 
proximated half  a  million  skins. 

A  summary  of  fur  seal  slaughter  for  the  past  forty- 
five  years  follows : 

Alaskas,  1871-1889 1,990,062 

Alaskas,  1890-1909 345,449 

Alaskas,  1910-1915 45,ooo 

Copper  Islands,  1891-1910. . . .      288,732 

Pelagic,  1873-1912 968,586 

Scattering,  1873-1912 500,000 

Total 4,137,829 

CLOSED    SEASON 
Under  international  agreement  between  the  United 
States,  England,  Russia,  Japan  and  Canada,  no  fur  seal 
may  be  hunted  or  killed  anywhere  in  the  open  sea  for  a 
period  of  seven  years  from  May,  191 1. 

LATEST   SEAL   STATISTICS 
In  191 7  seal  skins  were  shipped  from  Alaska  to 
the  United  States,  to  the  number  of  7,061,  estimated 
average  value  $30.    Probably  15,000  skins  will  be  pro- 
cured in  19 18. 


Natives  residing  upon  the  seal  islands,  Saint  Paul 
and  Saint  George,  are  cared  for  by  the  government,  but 
make  their  living  by  killing,  skinning  and  salting  the 
seals  and  their  skins,  and  capturing  the  blue  and  white 
foxes  permitted  to  be  killed  each  season;  they  receive 
$2.90  for  each  seal  skin  taken,  $5.00  for  each  blue  and 
$1.00  for  each  white  fox  skin — these  amounts  constitute 
their  allowance  or  wages  for  work  performed.  Many  of 
the  natives  have  saving  accounts  in  the  Union  Trust 
Company,  San  Francisco,  upon  which  they  draw  interest 
at  three  and  one-half  per  centum  per  annum. 

There  are  190  natives  on  Saint  Paul  and  98  on  Saint 
George  Island;  the  females  exceed  the  males  in  number 
to  the  extent  of  about  four  per  cent. 

FUR  SEAL  ROOKERIES 
Fur  sealing  as  an  industry  dates  from  1790,  though 
the  animal  had  been  known  for  some  years  previous. 
Captain  James  Cook  discovered  them  on  Desolation 
Island  in  1772,  and  on  the  Sandwich  Islands  where  he 
spent  the  winter  of  the  same  year.  Captain  Widdall 
found  them  on  the  South  Georgia  Islands  during  his 
attempts  to  discover  the  South  Pole.  Smaller  rookeries 
were  found  from  time  to  time  in  all  oceans,  and  in  due 
course  sealing  progressed  to  the  point  of  extermination. 
No  exact  account  of  the  total  catches  was  kept,  but 
it  is  estimated  that  1,200,000  seals  were  killed  on  the 
South  Georgia  Islands,  as  many  more  on  Desolation 
Island,  about  half  a  million  on  the  Sandwich  Islands  and 
2,500,000  on  Massafuero  Island,  in  the  Southern  Pacific. 
American  sealers  visited  the  last  named  island  in  1797, 

148 


FUR   SEAL   ROOKERIES  149 

and  some  fourteen  vessels  were  engaged  in  the  trade  at 
one  time ;  it  is  believed  that  more  than  three  million  seals 
were  killed  in  the  course  of  six  or  seven  years,  all  the 
skins  being  taken  to  Canton,  China,  where  prices  ranged 
from  50  cents  to  $6.00  per  skin. 

Kerguelen,  an  island  in  the  southern  Indian  Ocean, 
discovered  in  1771,  was  thronged  with  fur  seals,  and  in 
the  following  twenty  years  English  sealers  killed  nearly 
1,500,000  of  the  animals,  and  continued  their  operations 
until  the  seals  were  exterminated — a  fair  example  of 
human  greed. 

The  Crosett  Islands,  also  in  the  southern  Indian 
Ocean,  were  at  one  time  populated  by  fur  seals — hunters 
killed  every  one. 

Pribilov  Islands,  discovered  by  Vitus  Bering,  a 
Russian  navfgator,  in  1841,  in  Bering  Sea,  off  the  coast 
of  Russian  America,  now  Alaska,  have  for  more  than  a 
century  been  the  resort  annually  visited  by  the  greatest 
number  of  seals;  the  exact  total  has  never  been  known 
owing  to  the  impossibility  of  taking  a  census,  thousands 
being  in  the  sea  all  the  time,  and  great  numbers  continu- 
ally shifting  from  the  shore  to  the  water  or  from  place 
to  place  on  the  land;  a  careful  estimate,  scientifically 
worked  out  about  fifty  years  ago,  placed  the  number  at 
between  five  and  six  millions  on  the  Pribilov  Islands,  or 
rather  two  of  them,  St.  Paul  and  St.  George.  There 
are  herds  also  on  Otter  Island  and  other  small  isles  in 
the  group. 

Some  years  subsequent  to  discovery  the  Russian- 
American  Fur  Company  took  charge  of  the  islands,  but 
was  chiefly  concerned  in  the  capture  of  sea  otters,  which 
were  abundant  and  valuable,  and  consequently  compara- 


150  FUR  SEAL  ROOKERIES 

tively  few  seals  were  killed  for  some  years,  their  fur 
being  considered  unattractive ;  later  great  numbers  were 
killed  for  common  consumption,  and  doubtless  all  would 
have  been  destroyed  had  not  the  Russian  government 
wisely  regulated  the  catch,  which  was  reduced  to  about 
32,000  per  annum. 

South  Shetland  Islands,  south  of  Cape  Horn,  were 
discovered  in  1820,  and  during  the  following  three  years 
were  visited  by  a  considerable  number  of  sealers  who 
slaughtered  the  seals,  old  and  young,  nearly  400,000  of 
them,  ceasing  operations  only  when  there  were  no  more 
seals  to  kill. 
^  Shetland  Islands,  a  small  group  northeast  of  Scot- 
land, were  formerly  frequented  by  fur  seals  ranking 
above  all  others  owing  to  the  length,  density  and  beauty 
of  their  fur — all  killed. 

Cape  Horn,  southernmost  point  of  South  America, 
was  formerly  the  summer  retreat  of  many  seals;  com- 
paratively few  remain  at  the  present  date. 

Lobos  Islands,  off  the  coast  of  Uruguay  and  be- 
longing to  that  country;  these  rookeries  were  formerly 
frequently  raided  by  roving  sealers,  but  for  many  years 
have  been  protected  by  the  government,  and  all  persons, 
except  those  employed  to  kill  the  seals,  are  prohibited 
from  landing;  the  collection  varies  from  seven  thousand 
to  twenty-one  thousand  skins  per  annum.  The  salted 
skins  are  shipped  from  the  islands  to  Montevideo,  and 
thence  to  England.  The  islands  in  this  group  that  are 
frequented  by  seals  are  the  Castillos,  near  Cape  Polonio. 

Falkland  Islands,  a  number  of  rocky  isles  in  the 
south  Atlantic,  were  discovered  in  1592;  they  belong  to 
Great  Britain;  a  few  seal  skins  are  annually  collected. 


FUR   SEAL   ROOKERIES  161 

Vancouver  Island,  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  property  of 
Canada,  is  still  frequented  by  a  small  number  of  fur 
seals,  some  of  which  have  been  taken  each  season ;  these 
seals,  up  to  ten  thousand  in  a  year,  were  mainly  killed 
off  Cape  Flattery,  and  doubtless  formed  part  of  the  great 
herd  moving  toward  the  Pribilov  Islands.  Under  inter- 
national agreements  the  catch  has  been  discontinued. 

Cape  of  Good  Hope,  at  the  extreme  southern  point 
of  Africa,  has  long  been  a  source  of  supply,  but  in  recent 
years  the  catch  has  been  small.  Sealing  on  the  rookeries 
at  this  point  is  regulated  by  the  Cape  government. 

Komandorski,  embracing  Copper  and  Bering  Is- 
lands, off  the  coast  of  Kamtchatka,  in  Bering  Sea,  owned 
by  Russia.  For  many  years  Copper  Island  rookeries 
ranked  as  next  in 'importance  to  those  on  Saint  Paul  and 
Saint  George  Islands  in  regard  to  quantity  and  quality 
of  fur  seal  skins  annually  marketed,  the  catch  aggregat- 
ing upwards  of  forty  thousand  pelts. 

Robben  Island,  in  the  Okhotsk  Sea,  east  of  Sagha- 
lien,  was  at  one  time  an  important  seal  base,  but  prior 
to  1855  nearly  all  the  seals  were  killed,  and  it  became 
unprofitable  for  sealing  vessels  to  visit  the  island.  In 
1870  the  seals  returned  to  the  island  in  fairly  large  num- 
bers, and  many  were  killed.  The  island  was  taken 
from  Russia  by  Japan  in  the  recent  war  between  those 
countries. 

The  Kuriles,  some  twenty-six  small  islands  extend- 
ing from  Yezo  to  Kamtchatka,  belonging  to  Japan,  are 
regularly  frequented  by  fur  seals;  collections  of  skins 
formerly  varied  from  four  to  fifteen  thousand  per 
annum.  The  seals  have  been  efficiently  protected  by  the 
government  since  1877. 


The  remarkable  success  of  seal  skin  as  a  fashion- 
able fur  dates  from  1870,  or  subsequent  to  the  purchase 
of  Alaska,  including  the  seal  islands  off  the  coast. 
Though  the  demand  for  seal  skin  garments  in  quantity- 
began  at  that  period,  the  articles  manufactured  were  not 
only  comparatively  but  actually  low  in  price,  and  actual 
value,  gauged  by  the  appearance  of  the  fur,  and  the  in- 
artistic design  of  the  principal  seal  production — the  "seal 
skin  sacque." 

The  fur  was  intrinsically  valuable,  and  when  prop- 
erly dyed  by  J.  D.  Williams,  George  C.  Treadwell,  or  the 
best  London  and  Paris  houses,  approximated  a  "thing 
of  beauty" — fiote  it  was  only  nearly  beautiful,  owing  to 
the  fact  that  it  was  practically  impossible,  with  the 
methods  in  vogue,  to  clear  the  fur  of  the  long,  harsh 
"water  hairs,"  a  considerable  number  of  which  in- 
variably remained  in  the  finished  fur ;  these  hard  hairs, 
which  did  not  take  the  dye,  plainly  appeared  as  small 
white  points  at  irregular  intervals  in  the  surface  of  the 
fur,  marring  the  otherwise  attractive  article  made  of 
seal. 

Early  in  the  seventies  Gustave  and  Ferdinand 
Cimiotti  began  a  series  of  experiments  to  economically 
and  completely  remove  these  harsh  hairs  by  mechanical 
process,  and  after  much  study  and  labor,  and  not  a  few 
defeats,  finally  perfected  a  machine  which  effected  the 
desired  result — the  removal  down  to  the  roots  of  every 
hair  in  a  seal  skin.  This  achievement  in  unhairing  in- 
stantly revolutionized  the  seal  business  by  bringing  into 
relief  the  inherent  beauty,  and  greatly  augmenting  the 

162 


UNHAIRING  153 

commercial  value  of  the  fur ;  and  further  immensely  in- 
creased the  popularity  of  seal  skin  as  a  high  class  article, 
the  consumption  in  America  rising  from  a  few  hundred 
to  more  than  two  hundred  thousand  skins  per  annum. 

The  Cimiotti  unhairing  machine  was  patented  April 
12,  1881 ;  royalty  rights  were  sold  for  Europe,  and  the 
device  has  been  in  continuous  operation  to  date,  both  at 
home  and  abroad.  The  inventors  adapted  the  machine  to 
unhairing  coney  and  muskrat  skins  with  equally  wonder- 
ful success,  if  not  surpassing  results,  as  these  articles, 
when  dyed  seal  color,  are  so  transformed  in  appearance 
that  only  experts  can  distinguish  them  from  seal;  gar- 
ments made  of  these  skins  of  humble  origin,  when  ma- 
chined, vie  with  vastly  more  costly  seal  and  are  sold  as 
near-seal,  electric  seal,  Hudson  seal  and  other  similarly 
terminated  titles.  No  other  single  influence  approaches 
the  Cimiotti  unhairing  process  in  changing  the  Amer- 
ican fur  trade  from  the  common  place  of  former  ages, 
to  its  incomparably  grander  status  of  the  present  day. 

Cimiotti  Brothers  dissolved  February  14,  1894;  the 
business  has  since  continued  under  title :  "Cimiotti  Un- 
hairing Company/'  at  the  present  date  with  large  fac- 
tory and  every  essential  facility  at  413-415  Willoughby 
Avenue,  Brooklyn. 

Ferdinand  F.  Cimiotti  died  January  11, 1905,  in  the 
fifty-ninth  year  of  his  age.  Gustave  Cimiotti  died  June 
5,  1914;  bom  in  Vienna,  Austria,  in  1841. 


STRANGE   SEALS 

Machinery,  and  the  art  of  the  skillful  dyer,  have 
produced  more  classes  of  seals  than  nature  ever  dreamed 
of;  and  yet,  though  found  in  many  places,  there  is  only 
one  true  fur  seal — outside  the  transforming  workrooms 
of  a  select  number  of  furriers. 

The  plate  above  presents  a  fairly  good  portrait  in 
miniature  of  the  fur  seal,  erect  at  the  rear  of  the  group ; 
this  is  the  true  fur  seal,  a  real  pinnipedian,  so  designated 
because  its  feet  are  developed  by  nature  as  fins.  The 
fur  seal  has  various  high  sounding  names  not  even 

154 


STRANGE   SEALS  155 

vaguely  expressive  of  the  character,  quality  or  value  of 
the  fur,  namely.  North  Pacific  specimens  are  of  the 
genus  Callorhimis;  those  familiarly  known  as  plain  Alas- 
kans, are  learnedly  designated  as,  C.  Alascaniis;  and 
frequenters  of  waters  in  the  southern  hemisphere  as, 
genus  Archtocephahis. 

In  fur  stores,  and  stores  selling  furs,  we  may  find 
apparel  made  of  Fur  Seal — a  few  such — Hudson  Seal, 
Near  Seal,  Electric  Seal,  Baltic  Seal  and  French  Seal; 
none  of  the  last  five  in  the  list  is  a  pinnipedian,  that  is  to 
say,  a  seal. 

The  specimen  to  the  right,  the  one  with  a  long 
round,  furless  tail,  is  a  muskrat,  born  on  the  Jersey 
meadows  or  some  New  England  marsh;  it  resembles  a 
seal  in  being  able  to  swim,  but  otherwise  is  not  even  dis- 
tantly related  or  casually  acquainted. 

Some  years  ago  when  fur  seal  skin  was  popular  and 
common,  and  the  demand  exceeded  the  supply,  it  was 
discovered  that  the  pelt  of  the  humble  twenty-cent  musk- 
rat,  when  properly  unhaired  and  dyed,  looked  so  much 
like  seal  fur  that  only  experts  could  "tell"  which  was 
which,  and  as  they  sometimes  forgot  to  tell,  metamor- 
phosed muskrat  was  denominated  Hudson  Seal — it  was 
merely  accidental  that  calling  the  article  seal  helped  the 
sale  of  the  product,  as  there  was  no  desire  on  the  part  of 
any  one  to  lead  the  inexpert  to  suppose  that  this  brand 
of  seal  was  indigenous  to  the  Hudson  River  or  Hudson 
Bay.  Not  a  few  individual  buyers  of  transformed  musk- 
rat  were  vaguely  led  to  believe  that  the  article  was  really 
seal;  there  is  no  record  that  fur  seal  productions  were 
ever  sold  as  treated  muskrat. 

By  some  legal  action  or  suggestion  a  check  was 


156  STRANGE   SEALS 

placed  upon  advertising  dyed  muskrat  as  seal,  regardless 
of  the  prefix;  announcements  latterly  appearing  in  the 
daily  press  read:  "HUDSON  SEAL  (dyed  muskrat)." 

The  animal  to  the  left  of  the  picture,  he  of  the  long 
ears,  is  not  remotely  related  to  the  pinnipedia  either  in 
size,  habits  or  habitat,  and  would  drown  if  it  should  fall 
into  the  sea,  consequently  the  learned  rich  who  purchase 
and  wear  this  inland  fur  are  not  supposed  to  suppose 
that  it  was  skillfully  trapped  in  the  chill  waters  of  the 
Baltic  Sea. 

The  fact  that  the  animal  was  born  and  reared  in 
France  may  reasonably  account  for  the  first  half  of  its 
common  trade  name,  French,  but  not  the  more  com- 
mercially important  conclusion,  seal. 

Under  the  general  rule  governing — to  some  extent 
— newspaper  announcements,  latter  day  advertisements 
informingly  read:  "BALTIC  SEAL  (coney)." 

Disguising  titles,  imposed  to  be  excused,  add 
nothing  to  the  beauty  and  real  value  of  these  furs,  and 
they  doubtless  would  sell  as  well  as  hitherto  if  correctly 
offered  as  seal  dyed  muskrat,  and  seal  dyed  coney. 


^agt  an&  ^regent 


We  are  wont  to  believe  that  we  control  our  habits, 
but  the  reverse  correctly  voices  the  truth — our  habits 
master  us;  custom  rules  with  a  rod  of  iron,  and  for 
generations  has  dominated  the  fur  trade,  not  infre- 
quently to  its  detriment.  It  passes  belief,  but  is  indeed 
true  that  for  generations  the  trade  in  American  raw 
furs  was  conducted  in  ways  more  peculiar  than  any- 
thing attributed  by  Harte  to  the  heathen  Chinese.  For 
some  eighty-three  years,  dating  from  1830,  almost  the 
entire  annual  catch  of  American  raw  furs  was  shipped 
to  London  during  the  season  of  collection  to  be  offered 
at  public  auction;  a  small  proportion  of  the  skins,  par- 
ticular articles  specially  wanted  at  the  time,  was  sold  to 
local  manufacturers  prior  to  final  day  for  shipment  to 
London,  but  the  bulk  of  the  skins  were  counted,  baled 
and  sent  abroad  as  received.  It  would  seem  quite  busi- 
ness-like were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  American  mer- 
chants followed  the  peltries  to  London,  bought  them  in 
quantity  and  brought  them  back  to  America;  some  of 
the  skins  came  back  in  the  raw,  others  were  returned 
dressed  and  dyed  and  considerably  enhanced  in  cost  if 
not  in  value  by  tariff  charges  added  to  ocean  freight 
twice  imposed.  All  the  Alaska  fur  seal  skins,  a  sacred 
American  product,  taken  for  forty  consecutive  years 
were  brilliantly  bundled  about  in  that  way;  during  the 
whole  time,  if  given  the  opportunity,  American  dressers 
and  dyers  could  have  manipulated  the  skins,  and  Amer- 
ican consumers,  ultimate  consumers  of  three-quarters 
of  the  catch  of  Alaska  fur  seal  skins,  had  to  buy  at  a 

157 


158  PAST   AND   PRESENT 

price  augmented  by  freight  and  insurance  charges  to 
and  fro  across  the  broad  Atlantic,  a  commission  to  the 
London  sellers,  foreign  dressers'  and  dyers'  profits,  and 
the  American  duty. 

It  was  the  custom  of  the  country,  and  the  older  mer- 
chants refused  to  be  convinced  that  the  raw  fur  busi- 
ness could  be  conducted  in  any  other  way,  and  so  argued 
and  believed  until  August  i,  1914,  when  hideous  war 
dispelled  the  delusion. 

The  sale  of  American  furs  at  auction  in  London 
was  always  properly  conducted,  and  was  the  correct 
method  of  distribution,  but  the  public  sale  should  have 
been  held  in  the  Empire  City  of  North  America,  the 
trade  center  of  the  continent. 

It  required  nearly  a  year  for  American  merchants 
to  reach  the  conclusion  that  American  raw  furs  could 
be  sold  at  auction  in  America,  and  some  sixteen  months 
from  August  i,  1914,  to  open  the  first  public  sale  of 
national  magnitude.  War  has  not  only  reduced  for- 
tresses to  dust,  but  it  has  annihilated  traditions  and 
doubts,  and  awakened  an  Americanism  that  is  virile  and 
unafraid,  transformed  and  transforming,  and  abound- 
ing in  "newness  of  life." 

In  the  long  ago,  when  the  fur  trade  was  a  matter 
of  beads,  trinkets,  scheming  to  exploit  unsuspecting  In- 
dians, wreck  competitors,  and  get  the  best  of  every  bar- 
gain regardless  of  the  means  employed,  there  were  men 
wholly  mastered  by  greed  for  gold,  and  also  "good  men 
and  true"  who  preferred  an  honest  penny  to  an  un- 
righteous dollar.  It  would  neither  be  wise  nor  interest- 
ing to  recall  and  record  the  names  or  chronicle  the  deeds 
of  all,  simply  because  they  were  once  "in  the  fur  trade" ; 


PAST   AND   PRESENT  159 

some  of  them,  like  meteors,  flashed  and  flamed  com- 
paratively but  for  a  moment,  and  then  disappeared,  just 
as  those  little  points  of  light  "go  out"  in  the  still  deep 
darkness  of  the  night;  others,  less  brilliant  but  equally 
hopeful,  entered  the  ranks  quite  confident  that  they 
would  be  able  to  retire  with  a  competence  in  a  year  and 
a  day — and  retired  fully  awake  to  the  fact  that  a 
"painted  ship  upon  a  painted  ocean"  never  enters  port." 
Patient,  painstaking  plodders  alone  remain;  every 
one  now  at  or  near  the  top  began  close  to  the  bottom 
and  climbed,  and  laboriously  kept  on  climbing,  not  on 
the  run,  but  step  by  step,  unafraid  and  unconquerable. 

The  following  are  the  figures  quoted  in  the  price 
list  of  a  leading  New  York  fur  house  in  1867: 

Silver  fox,  as  to  size  and  color $10.00  to  $30.00 

Red  fox,  northern  and  eastern 1.25  to  1.50 

Red  fox.  Pa.,  N.  J.  and  Ohio i.oo  to  1.75 

Red  fox,  western  and  southern 50  to  .75 

Cross  fox,  as  to  size  and  color 2.50  to  6.00 

Grey  fox,  northern  and  eastern 40  to  .50 

Mink,  N.  Y.  and  eastern. 1.50  to  2.25 

Mink,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  Ohio,  Ind.,  111.  and 

similar i  -25  to  i  .75 

Mink,  southern  sections 50  to  1.25 

Marten 1.50  to  1.65 

Fisher,  northern  and  eastern 2.50  to  6.00 

Raccoon,  Mich.,  N.  Ind.,  Indian  handled       .60  to  i.oo 

Raccoon,  N.  Y.,  No.  Pa.  and  eastern. . .       .40  to  .50 

Raccoon,  southern  states 10  to  .25 

Otter,  northern,  eastern  and  N.  W 3.50  to  5.00 

Otter,  southern  sections 1.50  to  3.50 


160  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

Bear,  northern  and  southern 2.00  to  8.00 

Beaver,  northern I.CX)  to  1.50 

Opossum,  northern,  cased 06  to  .08 

Skunk,  prime  black,  cased 10  to  .12 

Skunk,  white  and  black 03  to  .05 

Muskrat,  spring 14  to  .16 

Muskrat,  fall  and  winter 07  to  .08 

Muskrat,  southern 05  to  .06 

Wildcat,  northern  and  eastern,  cased.. .       .35  to  .50 

The  following  are  prices  quoted  in  December,  1916: 

Silver  fox,  dark  skins $2.00  to  $1,000.00 

Red  fox,  northern  and  eastern 1.50  to  14.00 

Red  fox.  Pa.,  N.  J.  and  Ohio i.oo  to  7.00 

Cross  fox,  all  sections  dark 15.00  to  75-00 

Cross  fox,  all  sections  pale 6.00  to  30.00 

Grey  fox,  northern 45  to  2.00 

Mink,  New  York  and  eastern 75  to  4.00 

Mink,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  Ohio,  Ind 60  to  3.50 

Mink,  southern  sections 35  to  2.25 

Marten i.oo  to  25.00 

Fisher,  northern  and  eastern 6.00  to  25.00 

Raccoon,  except  southern 20  to  3.50 

Raccoon,  southern  states 15  to  1,60 

Otter,  northern  and  eastern 3.00  to  16.00 

Otter,  southern  sections 1.75  to  10.00 

Bear,  northern  and  southern i.oo  to  20.00 

Beaver,  northern 2.00  to  8.00 

Opossum,  northern 05  to  .80 

Skunk,  prime  black 2.00  to  3.50 

Muskrat,  fall  and  winter 20  to  .45 

Wildcat,  northern 75  to  4.00 


PAST   AND   PRESENT  161 

The  higher  prices  of  191 6  ruled  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  the  collection  was  much  larger  than  in  1867,  and 
all  Europe  had  been  at  war  for  two  years,  causing  a 
very  marked  reduction  in  exports. 

In  1875- 1876  manufacturers  complained  that  it 
was  well  nigh  impossible  to  operate  profitably  on  ac- 
count of  the  prevailing  high  prices  of  raw  furs;  the 
ruling  values  were: 

Prime  black  skunk,  $1.75  for  number  i;  $1.00  for 
ntmiber  2,  and  50  cents  for  number  3. 

New  England  mink,  $3.50,  $1.75  and  $I.CX). 

Western  raccoon,  $1.00,  40  cents  and  20  cents. 

Cross  fox,  dark,  $5.00,  $2.00  and  $1.00. 

Best  section  opossum,  30  cents,  20  cents  and  10 
cents. 

Forty  years  later,  season  of  191 6: 

Prime  black  skunk,  $4.50,  $2.50  and  $1.50. 
New  England  mink,  $4.00,  $3.00  and  $2.00. 
Western  raccoon,  $3.00,  $2.00  and  $1.00. 
Cross  fox,  dark,  $75.cx),  $50.cx)  and  $35.00. 
Best  section  opossum,  80  cents,  50  cents  and  25 
cents,  according  to  exact  grade. 


THE  TRAPPER 

The  alert  trapper — his  number  is  legion — holds  an 
important  place  in  the  ranks  of  the  army  of  persistent 
men  who  have  made  and  maintained  the  fur  trade  of 
America,  and  upon  whose  efforts  its  continuance  is 
dependent. 

He  is  "to  the  manor  born,"  a  native  of  wild  wood- 
lands, vales  and  hillsides ;  a  lover  of  nature,  sunny  skies, 
trackless  forests,  flowery  fields  and  rippling  streams; 
nature  in  all  her  moods — ^balmy  days,  frosty  nights, 
gentle  or  devastating  storms  of  rain,  snow  or  hail;  in 
summer  and  winter,  heat  and  cold,  day  and  night,  he 
goes  his  way  in  the  open,  trustful,  fairly  content  and 
unafraid. 

He  finds  marked  satisfaction  in  studying  the  furry 
people  inhabiting  the  meadows  and  marshes,  lakes  and 
brooks,  woods  and  uplands,  surrounding  his  humble 
home;  learns  all  the  works,  habits  and  cunning  ways 

162 


THE   TRAPPER  168 

of  the  fur-bearers,  and  in  matching  and  mastering  their 
natural  intelligence  makes  them  his. 

The  period  of  the  trappers  greatest  activity  in  pro- 
curing fur  is  determined  for  him  by  protective  nature, 
and  runs  from  the  first  frosty  nights  in  late  October  to 
the  breaking  up  of  the  ice  in  lakes  and  streams  in  early 
April,  the  only  days  in  all  the  year  when  the  fur  upon 
the  animals  is  prime,  every  way  at  its  best  and  most 
valuable. 

The  lot  of  the  trapper,  upon  whose  activities  the 
fur  business  depends,  is  not  an  easy  one;  his  battle  for 
success,  rarely  more  than  daily  bread,  is  fought  out  in 
days  and  nights  marked  by  floods  and  snow  and  ice 
and  freezing  winds,  which  only  those  who  love  the  free 
and  open  country  would  dare  to  encounter.  His  reward, 
even  when  he  garners  all,  is  meagre,  and  falls  far  below 
his  deserving;  but  exact  justice  is  not  insistently  dis- 
pensed, as  a  rule,  in  matters  affecting  money. 

TRAPPING   SEASON 

Fur-bearing  animals  are  protected  in  nearly  all 
the  states  by  special  laws  plainly  limiting  the  portion 
of  the  year  during  which  they  may  be  trapped,  shot 
or  otherwise  taken  for  their  pelts,  or  for  breeding  in 
captivity;  where  no  laws  have  been  enacted  for  their 
preservation  fur-bearers  have  become  nearly  extinct  as 
the  result  of  excessive  trapping  summer  and  winter ;  the 
state  evidencing  least  wisdom  in  conserving  wild  animal 
life  as  an  important  asset  is  Pennsylvania;  some  of  the 
New  England,  Western  and  Southern  States,  while  hav- 
ing given  the  matter  moderate  attention,  cannot  do  more 
than  report  progress. 


164 


TRAPPING   SEASON 


In  nearly  all  sections  the  open  season  for  trapping 
begins  November  i  to  15,  and  closes,  generally,  either 
March  i  or  during  that  month ;  in  some  sections  the  open 
trapping  season  for  muskrats,  which  are  best  in  fur 
early  in  spring,  is  extended  to  near  the  middle  of  April. 

Exact  dates  are  not  recorded  here  owing  to  the  fact 
that  they  are  not  the  same  in  all  the  states,  and  are 
usually  changed  to  some  extent  each  year. 

TRAPS 

Traps  used  in  catching  fur-bearing  animals  are  in 
the  main  cruel  devices,  the  exceptions  being  pits  and 
boxes  designed  to  catch  the  animals  alive  without  injur- 
ing them  in  any  way. 

Spring  traps  having  strong  steel  jaws  which  in 
closing  mangle  the  flesh  and  break  the  bones  of  the 
creatures  caught  therein,  inflict  great  suffering  until 
the  captive  is  finally  killed  by  the  owner  of  the  traps; 
this  suffering  might  be  reduced  to  a  minimum  by  trap- 
pers visiting  their  traps  and  releasing  the  imprisoned 


TRAPS  165 

animals  at  the  earliest  possible  moment.  This  is  re- 
quired by  the  laws  of  some  states,  is  done  independent 
of  laws  or  no  laws  by  the  more  humane  trappers,  but 
should  be  the  universal  practice. 

A  trap  which  will  instantaneously  kill  should  be 
devised,  and  doubtless  will  be  when  generally  and  in- 
sistently demanded,  or  trapping  is  legally  prohibited  by 
any  other  means. 

PROTECTIVE  LAWS 

Credit  for  according  material  assistance  in  main- 
taining the  fur  trade  of  America  is  due  to  the  legislators 
of  a  number  of  the  states,  though  many  of  the  laws 
passed  for  the  protection  of  fur-bearing  animals  are 
"fearfully  and  wonderfully  made,"  and  adequate  pro- 
vision for  their  enforcement  is  rarely  well  considered. 
At  the  outset  it  was  assumed  that  fur-bearers,  though  a 
"feeble  folk,"  ought  to  take  care  of  themselves,  and  that 
any  one  possessing  a  supply  of  salt  to  place  upon  their 
tails  had  the  right  to  capture  and  keep  as  many  as  he 
desired.  When  the  bison  was  swept  off  the  western  and 
southwestern  plains  and  prairies  by  greedy  tongue  and 
hide  hunters,  and  the  beaver  was  practically  exter- 
minated in  all  penetrable  portions  of  the  land,  the  law- 
makers reluctantly  awoke  to  the  fact  that  a  valuable 
asset  had  been  foolishly  destroyed,  and  that  all  fur- 
bearing  animals  would  soon  disappear  unless  fairly  good 
laws  were  speedily  enacted  for  their  reasonable  preser- 
vation. At  first  such  laws  were  placed  upon  the  statute 
books  of  only  a  few  states,  but  in  succeeding  years  the 
lead  was  followed  by  one  state  after  another,  and  at 
the  present  time  Arizona,  Kentucky  and  Oklahoma  are 


166  PROTECTIVE   LAWS 

the  only  states  affording  no  legal  protection  to  fur- 
bearers;  ten  other  states  have  adopted  laws  of  very, 
limited  scope.  California,  Colorado,  Montana,  New 
Mexico  and  Washington  protect  beaver  at  all  times. 
Florida  and  Utah  laws  protect  beaver  and  otter  in  the 
former  from  February  i  to  October  31,  and  in  the 
latter  all  the  time.  Mississippi  provides  a  brief  closed 
season  for  bear  only.  Wyoming  provides  protection  for 
beaver  to  September  15,  1919,  and  Arkansas  and 
Nevada  to  1920. 

In  some  of  the  states  the  fur  laws  might  readily  be 
changed  for  the  better,  particularly  in  setting  the  open- 
ing date  a  little  later  in  states  which  permit  trapping  to 
begin  November  i.  There  is  imperative  need  of  a 
stricter  enforcement  of  the  laws  in  all  the  states,  and  it 
is  to  the  interest  of  trappers  and  raw  fur  merchants  to 
co-operate  in  effecting  this  result.  A  considerable  num- 
ber of  fur-bearing  animals  are  caught  annually  many 
days  in  advance  of  the  open  season,  at  which  time  the 
fur  is  nearly  worthless. 

This  practice  is  effectively  discouraged  by  reputable 
members  of  the  trade,  who  refuse  to  accept  such  pelts 
at  any  price — there  are,  however,  other  dealers,  those 
who  get  busy  in  fur  from  November  to  April,  who  take 
any  skin  offered  in  which  they  think  they  see  a  profit. 

The  Federal  Government  has  enacted  excellent  laws 
for  the  protection  of  all  species  of  fur-bearers  found  in 
Alaska. 

Fur-bearers  are  ideally  protected  by  laws  in  all  the 
Provinces  of  Canada — ideal,  not  alone  because  the  laws 
are  wisely  framed,  but  definitely  on  account  of  the  fact 
that  they  are  rigidly  enforced. 


FIRST    TRAIN    ON    MOHAWK    VAUiET    R.    R. 


TRANSPORTATION 

Raw  furs  in  the  beginning  were  transported  from 
the  localities  in  which  they  were  secured  in  the  woods, 
lakes  and  streams,  on  the  backs  of  the  successful  buyers, 
the  longer  carries  requiring  many  days  and  much 
physical  strain.  Later  the  season's  catch  of  peltries  was 
collected  at  chosen  points  along  the  rivers  or  borders  of 
the  lakes,  and  then  more  easily  and  swiftly  transported 
to  the  principal  posts  in  strong  canoes — and  still  later 
in  steamers. 

The  accompanying  illustration  shows  a  fairly  good 
picture  of  the  first  locomotive  and  train  ever  run  over 
the  Mohawk  Valley  Railroad;  the  line  was  surveyed  in 
1830,  and  the  road  was  opened  in  September,  1831 ;  the 
train  consisted  of  three  coaches  drawn  by  an  engine  of 
three  and  one-half  tons. 


f(ACCOOlV 

167 


BSKIMO    DOG 


DOG 


During  the  first  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  of  the 
fur  trade  in  America,  though  man  was  the  ruling  spirit, 
the  master  mind,  he  did  not  achieve  success  solely  with 
his  willing  hands,  the  unreliable  guns  of  the  time,  spears, 
bows  and  arrows,  pitfalls,  or  sundry  minor  devices,  but 
was  definitely  and  importantly  aided  in  his  enterprise 
by  the  plain,  every-day  dog — not  just  one  kind  of  a  dog, 
but  dogs  of  every  size  and  color  abounding  in  the  diverse 
canine  family ;  any  kind  of  a  dog  that  would  tree  a  coon, 
chase  a  fox,  run  a  skunk  to  earth,  or  face  a  wildcat  was 
employed  and  kept  on  the  payroll  so  long  as  it  produced 
results — failures  were  quickly  given  passports  to  the 
land  of  nod. 

Dogs  were  used  to  discover,  pursue  and  in  instance 
to  kill  fur-bearers  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  from  the 
vast  wilds  of  northern  Canada  all  the  way  south  to  the 

168 


DOG  169 

Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  from  ocean  to  ocean,  and  they 
were  extremely  effective  in  increasing  the  catch  of  fur 
year  after  year — a  record  sustained  without  a  break  to 
the  present  day. 

Aborigines  of  North  America  possessed  many  dogs, 
a  greater  number  than  the  white  man  of  average  wealth 
can  now  afford,  and  considered  them  indispensable,  as 
live  assets  yielding  satisfactory  usury,  and  in  the  long 
rim  more  effectual  than  the  crude  traps  of  the  period 
in  capturing,  or  aiding  in  the  capture  of  game  and  fur- 
bearing  animals  of  practically  all  species. 

The  dogs,  in  view  of  their  remarkable  utility  were 
not  generally  as  well  cared  for  during  their  lifetime 
as  one  would  reasonably  suppose,  but  when  they  died 
they  were  accorded  many  honors,  and  their  remains 
were  borne  to  their  last  resting  place  in  evident  esteem 
and  regret.  The  Indians  believed  that  the  spirits  of  the 
canines  joined  those  of  the  braves  and  buffaloes  that 
had  gone  on  before  to  the  "happy  hunting  grounds," 
and  that  they  would  find  them  there  and  successfully 
hunt  with  them  when  it  came  their  turn  to  cross  the 
"great  divide." 

The  mound  builders  of  Tennessee  buried  dogs  in 
the  graves  of  children,  who  were  considered  too  young 
to  trace  their  way  alone  to  the  realm  of  departed  spirits. 
Early  natives  of  Mexico  entertained  the  same  opinion. 
The  belief  still  prevails  in  some  rural  districts,  and 
seemingly  now  and  then  in  the  ranks  of  the  ultra  rich. 

Dogs  are  used  not  only  as  fur  finders,  but  as 
guardians  of  the  trappers'  hut  and  his  catch  of  peltries 
left  therein  during  his  visit  to  the  trap  line. 

They  are  also  employed,  and  more  importantly,  to 


170  DOG 

transport  the  trappers*  collection  of  peltries  from  his 
trapping  grounds  in  the  wilderness  to  the  verge  of 
civilization. 

In  the  far  north,  the  vast  unoccupied  Hudson  Bay 
section,  and  the  wild  districts  of  Alaska,  where  snow 
and  ice  abound  for  many  months  in  the  year,  fur-bearers 
of  superior  interest  and  value  abide  and  multiply ;  some 
of  the  best  trapping  sections  are  hundreds  of  miles  dis- 
tant from  the  farthest  outlying  settlement,  and  the 
knowing  professional  trapper  regularly  journeys  to 
these  remote,  uncharted  regions  accompanied  by  a  pack 
of  dogs  drawing  supply-laden  sledges,  and  remains  in 
the  dreary  solitudes  from  September  to  May  following, 
or  a  longer  term,  hunting  and  trapping  black  and  silver 
foxes,  lynx,  fisher,  marten  and  other  prized  fur-bearers. 

In  the  spring,  while  the  snow  remains  and  is  frozen 
hard,  the  trapper  arranges  his  collection  of  peltries  in 
firmly  bound  packs,  loads  them  on  the  sledge,  and  his 
dogs  draw  them  to  the  trading  post  from  which  he  set 
out  the  previous  year;  on  his  arrival  he  exchanges  his 
fur  for  such  things  as  he  needs  during  his  sojourn  on 
the  border  and  for  his  next  expedition  northward. 

The  dog  is  not  only  a  finder  and  a  fetcher,  but  is 
the  "real  thing,"  the  fur  itself ;  the  pelts  of  many  thou- 
sands of  dogs,  particularly  those  bred  for  the  purpose 
in  China,  are  annually  used  in  the  fur  trade  of  America 
in  the  production  of  robes  and  men's  fur  coats. 

Every  alert  trapper  of  to-day  has  at  least  one 
valuable,  well-trained  dog — a  specialist — good  for  coon, 
great  for  skunk,  or  incomparable  as  a  fox  finder;  and 
these  intelligent  dogs  materially  aid  the  men  afield  in 
maintaining  at  its  maximum  the  fur  trade  of  America. 


tariff 

The  United  States  tariff  on  imported  goods  of  high 
and  low  degree  has  affected  furs  and  furry  things  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent  ever  since  there  was  a  tariff, 
whether  operated  under  manifold  decisions,  either  for 
protection  or  revenue.  For  a  long  time  the  tariff  laws 
were  quite  easily  understood,  the  schedules  being  tersely 
set  forth  as  follows:  "raw  furs,  free;  dressed  and  dyed 
fur  skins,  twenty  per  centum  ad  valorem;  manufac- 
tured furs,  thirty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem ;"  the  last 
two  rates  were  designed  to  protect  an  "infant  industry," 
the  particular  infant  being  only  a  little  more  than  a 
hundred  years  old.  As  time  passed,  and  it  never  stood 
still,  customs  appraisers,  specially  capable  in  electing  the 
candidate  of  their  party,  made  something  like  twice  in 
awhile  marked,  marvelous,  diverse  and  incomprehensible 
rulings  regarding  the  constitution  of  fur,  resulting  in 
tribulation  and  uncertainty,  appeals  and  more  appeals, 
and  trials  resulting  chiefly  in  painful  delays  and  much 
unnecessary  expense. 

Merchant  appraisers  were  called  into  being,  and 
were  overworked  without  becoming  a  profound  success, 
not  on  account  of  the  facts  involved,  for  they  knew  fur 
perfectly,  but  because  of  the  opinion  that  it  was  the 
duty  of  every  official  to  protect  the  tariff,  and  let  the 
particular  industry  take  care  of  itself. 

Then  General  Appraisers  were  appointed,  succeeded 
by  Boards  of  Appraisers,  and  more  distinctions,  doubts 
and  difficulties,  until  no  one  presumed  to  know  the 
proper  classification  in  advance  of  its  official  determina- 
tion; conditions  have  improved  under  wiser  heads,  but 

171 


172  TARIFF 

it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  no  one  can  say  what  will 
be  next  in  the  form  and  substance  of  import  duties.  We 
merely  know  that  many  startling  official  rulings,  closed 
to  secondary  appeal,  have  been  promulgated :  pony  skins, 
originating  in  Russia,  have  been  classified  as  "fur"; 
frogs'  legs,  for  want  of  a  national  term,  have  been  as- 
sessed for  duty  as  "dressed  poultry,"  and  live  snails  have 
been  admitted  for  revenue  as  "wild  animals." 

Goose  skins  dressed  with  only  the  down  remaining 
thereon  were  assessed  at  forty  per  centum  ad  valorem 
as  "manufacturers  of  down";  protest,  then  a  judicial 
ruling  was  handed  down  by  the  Board  of  United  States 
General  Appraisers,  July  23,  191 7,  declaring  that  "duty 
should  have  been  assessed  at  the  rate  of  thirty  per 
centum  ad  valorem  under  paragraphs  348  and  386  of 
the  tariff  act  as  furs  dressed  on  the  skin." 

The  goose  skins  in  question,  regardless  of  the  learned 
ruling,  will  pass  into  consumption  as  swan's  down. 

Practically  all  of  the  conflict  in  determining  tariff 
classifications  and  rates  of  duty  springs  from  the 
opinion,  entertained  by  examiners  at  the  seat  of  customs, 
that  where  skillful  classification  may  impose  either  of 
two  rates  of  duty  seemingly  lawful,  the  higher  rate 
should  be  constrained  to  apply. 

Tariff  troubles  of  a  furry  nature  have  their  be- 
ginning at  New  York  because  it  is  the  port  of  entry  of 
nearly  all  fur  receipts  from  over  seas;  though  the  ex- 
perienced distress  has  its  inception  in  New  York,  after 
final  appeals  and  protests  have  been  sifted  and  settled, 
the  thrill  speeds  over  the  entire  continent,  for  in  every 
instance  the  unsuspecting  consumer  pays  the  duty,  and 
plus — ^but  not  on  furs  only. 


^mt^ 


r 


Y 


' 


!, 


'( 

( . 

' 

1 

'1  J 

1 . 

i 

FUR  HEADWEAR 


Adown  the  ages  to  fifty  years  ago  New  York  City 
experienced  real  winters  with  a  succession  of  heavy 
snowstorms;  in  those  comfortable  days  the  snow  was 
cleared  from  the  sidewalks,  but  was  allowed  to  remain 
on  the  streets  until  it  trickled  away  in  its  dance  to  the 
sea  in  the  glad  springtime.  In  that  wintery  era  public 
sleighs  daily  transported  fur-robed  and  fur-capped  men 
and  women  from  the  East  River  ferries  to  the  uptown 
districts,  and  the  bracing  ride  was  doubtless  more 
heartily  enjoyed  than  a  dash,  dangerously  near  the  speed 
limit,  in  high  powered  autos  in  this  snowless  age. 

Fur  headwear,  mainly  caps,  was  almost  universally 
worn  by  men  and  boys,  and  was  considered  necessary 
to  real  comfort.  New  York  was  the  source  and  center 
of  supply,  though  many  dozens  of  fur  caps  were  also 
made  at  Albany  and  in  Brooklyn,  and  in  more  moderate 

178 


174  FUR  HEADWEAR 

quantity  in  a  few  other  places ;  the  furs  used  comprised 
muskrat,  otter,  beaver,  and  some  fancy  and  cheaper  furs. 
Many  manufacturing  furriers,  who  in  the  course  of  time 
became  prominent  in  the  production  of  ladies'  furs — 
capes,  stoles  and  muffs — ^began  their  careers  in  the  trade 
in  the  manufacture  of  fur  caps. 

As  the  years  passed  the  Empire  City  gradually  be- 
came an  ever  enlarging  treeless  tract,  an  expanded  area 
of  stone  and  brick,  and  the  snowfall  materially  decreased 
in  volume,  and  for  the  convenience  of  trade  and  traffic 
the  smaller  amount  of  snow  falling  at  intervals  in  suc- 
cessive winters  was  promptly  carted  from  the  streets 
and  sent  adrift  in  the  rivers  east  and  west,  and  the 
public  sleighs,  the  jingling  bells,  disappeared  from  the 
once  cheery  thoroughfares,  and  the  fur  cap  gradually 
declined  in  popularity  in  the  American  metropolis. 

When  seal  skin  became  fashionable,  some  forty 
years  ago,  caps,  toques  and  hats  for  both  ladies*  and 
men's  wear  were  quite  extensively  made  of  this  fine  fur ; 
the  production  continues,  but  is  chiefly  in  ladies'  goods. 
Other  fur  hats  for  women  and  children  are  made  in 
New  York  in  mink,  beaver,  chinchilla  and  other  skins 
as  fashion  demands. 

Fur  caps  are  still  worn  in  winter  by  men  in  the 
northwest  and  west,  the  goods  being  manufactured  in 
New  York  and  at  various  places  in  the  sections  of  con- 
sumption. 

Ladies'  headwear,  made  wholly  or  in  part  of  fur,  is 
fairly  popular  at  the  present  time. 


Wift  Jf urrier 

The  expert  practical  furrier  is  the  corner-stone 
upon  which  a  successful  fur  business  is  reared ;  his  won- 
derful manipulation  of  knives  and  needles  gives  per- 
manent form  and  effect  to  the  designer's  fancy,  pro- 
duces marvels  in  artistic  excellence,  and  on  demand  al- 
most literally  develops  "something  from  nothing"  owing 
to  his  great  proficiency  in  cutting,  matching  and  piecing 
together  not  only  whole  and  half  skins,  but  fragments 
so  tiny,  mere  bits,  that  many  hundreds  are  required  to 
compose  the  lining  of  a  single  garment.  In  work  of 
this  character  the  leadership,  long  since  attained,  is  un- 
approachably maintained  by  the  practical  furrier. 


176 


Joseph  Steiner  entered  upon  his  successful  career 
in  the  fur  business  in  New  York  City  in  1876,  briefly 
in  association  with  Henry  Kraus,  and  then  with  his 
brother,  David  Steiner,  formed  the  firm  of  Joseph 
Steiner  &  Brothers,  under  which  style  it  has  continued 
to  date. 

From  the  beginning  their  motto  might  well  have 
been  "work  and  win,"  for  no  house  engaging  in  the 
fur  business  during  the  past  fifty  years,  or  earlier  in 
so  far  as  we  can  ascertain,  has  manifested  greater  in- 
dustry in  business  building;  each  member  of  the  firm 
has  continuously  devoted  his  time,  talents  and  physical 
powers  to  the  development  of  the  commercial  and  mer- 
cantile interests  of  the  house  in  all  possible  fields,  domes- 
tic and  foreign,  neglecting  no  opportunity,  great  or 
moderate,  whereby  the  ends  desired  might  be  attained. 
In  an  exceptional  degree  the  very  pronounced  success 
achieved  in  the  more  than  forty  years  is  to  be  credited 
to  the  personal  eflforts  of  the  members  of  the  firm,  who 
from  first  to  last  have  unweariedly  pressed  forward 
wherever  duty  beckoned. 

In  the  earlier  years  of  the  business  the  firm  recog- 

176 


r 


JOSEPH   STEINER— DAVID   STEINER  177 

nized  the  wisdom  of  establishing  strong  trade  relations 
with  all  important  home  markets,  and  sound,  enduring 
connections  abroad — they  were  building  both  nationally 
and  internationally — and  in  those  days  the  members  of 
the  firm  were  great  travelers,  not  only  in  the  United 
States,  and  northward  into  Canada,  but  again  and 
again  across  the  high  seas;  their  constant  journeying 
occasioned  wonder — one  member,  as  an  instance,  would 
return  from  Europe  in  the  morning,  and  on  the  evening 
of  the  same  day  another,  released  from  house  duty 
would  be  on  the  way  west  or  to  Montreal,  and  almost 
immediately  following  his  return  would  again  speed 
from  sight  on  an  outward  bound  ocean  steamer — and 
always  on  business  bent. 

That  remarkable  round  of  personal  work — no  eight 
hour  day  in  it — enabled  the  members  of  the  firm  to  meet 
and  master  every  detail  of  the  business  problem  and 
difficulty  of  the  first  days  and  the  succeeding  years, 
which  as  they  passed  brought  the  anticipated  reward — 
success  won  by  patient  and  persistent  industry  and 
devotion  to  the  right. 

The  firm  to-day  stands  at  the  front  among  import- 
ers and  exporters  of  raw,  dressed  and  dyed  furs,  and 
raw  fur  merchants;  shipments  of  North  American 
peltries  are  received  from  trappers  and  collectors  in 
all  best  sections.  The  New  York  warerooms  and  offices 
are  at  1 15-127  West  Thirtieth  Street. 

Joseph  and  David  Steiner  are  invariably  consulted 
upon  every  important  trade  matter;  are  prominently 
identified  with  all  public  spirited  enterprises  aflfecting 


178  JOSEPH   STEINER— DAVID   STEINER 

the  progress  and  welfare  of  the  business;  and  are  ever 
quick  to  participate  in  any  movement  of  moment  affect- 
ing the  status  of  the  industry  to  which  they  have  un- 
reservedly devoted  their  time  and  interest — the  best  at 
their  command. 

The  indefinite  continuance  of  the  name,  than  which 
none  ranks  higher  in  worth  in  the  trade,  is  assumed  by 
the  action  of  the  house  on  January  i,  191 7,  at  which 
time  an  interest  in  the  firm  was  given  to  Simon  J. 
Steiner,  Julius  Steiner,  Albert  J.  Steiner  and  Sol. 
Steiner,  all  sons  of  the  senior  member. 


180  SEWING  MACHINE 

The  fur  sewing  machine  has  been  instrumental  in 
incalculably  magnifying  the  manufacturing  branch  of 
the  fur  industry  in  America,  and  the  old  world  as  well. 

In  1895,  after  five  years  of  study  and  experiment, 
S.  M.  Jacoby  produced  a  fur  sewing  machine  which 
worked  perfectly,  sewing  equally  well  furs  of  every 
description,  and  enabling  manufacturers  to  increase 
their  output  many  fold. 

The  Jacoby  machine  makes  a  uniform,  firm  stitch, 
an  even  and  pliant  seam,  and  sews  plebeian  and  the  most 
aristocratic  furs  with  equal  facility  and  satisfaction. 
The  Jacoby  machine  met  with  instant  favor,  and  for 
many  months  the  capacity  of  the  factory  was  strained 
to  the  utmost  to  meet  the  demands  of  alert  furriers  in 
New  York,  and  later  in  Canada  and  Europe. 

Sundry  and  material  improvements  were  made 
from  time  to  time,  until  the  inventor  deemed  he  had 
attained  perfection. 

Frederick  Osann  a  little  later  than  the  preceding 
devised,  and  subsequently  perfected,  a  fur  sewing  ma- 
chine which  is  in  successful  operation  in  America  and 
Europe. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  manufacturing  furriers  that  the 
fur  sewing  machine  has  been  definitely  instrumental  in 
imparting  a  finish  not  attainable  in  hand  sewing. 


AVIATION 

There  is  an  increasing  demand  for  fur  to  meet  the 
experienced  needs  of  aviators,  many  of  whom,  essen- 
tially those  operating  in  war  zones,  ascend  to  great 
heights  in  the  air  where  the  temperature  is  below  freez- 
ing. Bird  men  do  not  choose  the  finer  furs,  but  care- 
fully select  those  that  are  classed  as  wind-resisting  and 
cold-excluding;  raccoon,  goat,  wolf  and  Australian 
opossum  serve  best  and  are  most  in  use. 

181 


It  may  be  that  there  was  a  time  when  to  assert  that 
an  article  of  attire  was  "in  fashion"  clearly  awakened 
the  impression  that  it  possessed  excessive  charm  in  more 
respects  than  one ;  but  the  term  "fashion"  has  ceased  to 
be  thus  expressive  in  consequence  of  its  unrestricted 
application  to  fads  and  fancies,  things  of  beauty  in 
measurable  degree,  and  "best  sellers"  of  the  moment 
quite  regardless  of  importance,  significance  or  intrinsic 
value — a  priceless  robe,  a  simple  sleeve,  a  brittle  button, 
a  color  or  a  curve  are  all  alike  classed  as  "in  fashion." 

Formerly  an  article  that  was  truly  fashionable,  was 
at  the  same  time  rather  exclusive;  in  these  more  demo- 
cratic days  the  particular  thing,  or  style,  declared  to  be 
in  fashion  is  adopted  by  all  who  can  afiford  the  price 
and  care  to  mingle  with  the  many  and  be  lost  in  the 
multitude. 

182 


FASHION 


183 


Dame  Fashion  rules;  is 
autocratic ;  supreme ;  dis- 
cards one  fabric  that  is  per- 
fectly good,  sets  it  aside  re- 
gardless of  its  beauty  or  in- 
trinsic value,  and  adopts 
something  else  not  a  whit 
better  or  more  attractive, 
effecting  the  change  merely 
as  an  assertion  of  regal 
authority. 

The  law  of  supply  and 
demand  has  not  been  re- 
pealed, but  is  in  detail  defi- 
nitely in  force  and  opera- 
tion; it  is  not  submissively 
recognized,  however,  in  the 
realm  of  fashion,  except 
when  fashion  consents,  co- 
operates and  commands,  and 
even  then — so  far  as  furs 
are  concerned  —  extreme 
favor  is  accorded  to  a  single 
article,  or  rarely  more  than 
two  simultaneously. 

Wheat,  or  even  common 
potatoes,  may  at  times  be  in 
exceptionally  small  supply,  considerably  unequal  to  the 
demand,  and  in  consequence  a  rise  in  price  occurs,  and 
the  advance  in  value,  or  price,  thus  occasioned  extends 
to  all  wheat  and  potatoes;  the  same  rule  is  operative 
with  regard  to  all  other  necessaries. 


1817 


FASHION  185 

Of  the  thirty  or  more  varieties  of  fur-bearing 
animals  there  may  be  at  one  time  more  than  twenty 
million  skins  in  the  markets  of  the  world,  but  of  these 
thirty  odd  diiferent  kinds  of  fur — differing  in  color, 
texture,  fineness  and  beauty,  but  all  fur — only  one 
variety  is  in  extreme  fashion ;  the  number  of  skins  may 
be  twenty  or  one  hundred  thousand,  but  at  the  utmost 
obtainable  at  the  particular  time  insufficient  to  meet  the 
demands  of  all  fashionable  consumers,  and  under  such 
conditions  the  price  per  skin  will  advance  enormously, 
and  the  other  classes  of  skins,  including  those  of  equal 
or  greater  natural  worth  or  beauty,  will  remain  station- 
ary or  even  decline  in  price,  with  the  exception  of  two 
or  three  articles  very  similar  in  appearance  or  susceptible 
of  manipulation  as  remarkably  good  imitations,  which 
generally  advance  somewhat  in  harmony  with  the  lead- 
ing fur  of  fashion.  The  one  fur  in  strong  fashionable 
favor  one  season,  and  which  in  consequence  has  sud- 
denly advanced  one,  or  more  than  two  hundred  per  cent, 
in  price,  may  be  quite  neglected  a  year  or  two  later,  and 
on  that  account  decline  in  value  more  than  it  had  ad- 
vanced in  obedience  to  fashion's  decree. 

Fashion  in  fur  changes  frequently;  the  range  in 
differentiation  includes  jackets,  capes,  full  depth  gar- 
ments, stoles,  scarfs,  neckwear  of  various  names,  muffs 
and  trimmings  varied  in  design,  fit  and  combinations, 
which  come  and  go  in  alternation;  these  are  only  the 
forms,  the  real  fashion  changes  are  more  noticeable  in 
the  class  or  color  of  the  fur ;  mink  enjoyed  a  long  reign, 
and  choice  skins  were  "up"  to  approximately  twenty 
dollars,  and  mink  passed  out,  and  though  intrinsically 
worth  "as  much  as  ever,"  declined  to  a  tenth  of  the 
top  notch  figure;  seal,  changed  from  time  to  time  in 


186 


FASHION 


form  and  finish,  succeeded  and  was  queen  for  a  quarter 
of  a  century,  and  then  near-seal,  an  excellent  imitation, 
found  favor;  next,  fox  had  a  rather  long  day,  followed 
by  lynx,  natural  raccoon,  and  fitch.  Latterly  fur,  just 
fur,  has  been  so  universally  popular  from  the  frozen 
north  to  the  balmy  south,  that  the  coats  of  all  fur-bearers 
are  used — but  natural  black  and  silver  fox,  Russian 
sable  and  ermine  command  sufficiently  high  prices  to 
meet  with  measurable  satisfaction  among  the  exclusive 
four  hundred. 

Fashion,  not  supply  and  demand,  rules.  In  1848  a 
total  of  225,000  muskrat  skins  was  sold  at  public 
auction  in  London  at  an  average  price  of  two  pence  per 
skin;  sixty-two  years  later  4,000,000  muskrat  skins 
were  sold  at  an  average  of  fourteen  pence  per  skin.  All 
fur  skins  show  a  similar  record;  for  some  furs  the 
fluctuation  is  not  expressed  in  pence,  but  in  hundreds  of 
pounds. 

For  many  centuries  the  world,  sycophants  pre- 
dominating, kings  and  queens  idly  set  the  fashions; 
these  royal  personages,  supported  by  the  state,  were  in 


FASHION 


187 


a  class  by  themselves,  but  of  late  the  class  has  become 
so  small  that  fashion  experts  have  to  roam  afield  in 
quest  of  other  models  and  manikins. 

American  designers  may  cheerfully  turn  from  the 
whims  of  kings,  and  find  in  the  sensible  and  serviceable 
a  profitable  field  for  the  exercise  of  their  skill  in  devising 
apparel  worth  while  for  the  world,  because  good  enough 
for  America. 


MISS   BLACK    MUSKRAT 


LADY    HUDSON    SEAL 


Both  garments  are  made  of  muskrat  fur ;  the  first 
is  in  the  natural  state,  except  that  it  has  been  cleansed, 
or  "dressed";  the  second  has  been  dressed,  machined 
and  dyed,  and  considerably  increased  in  price. 


American  jFur=Pearet2! 

Many  of  the  more  important  fur-bearing  animals, 
considered  from  the  standpoints  of  quahty  and  quantity, 
abound  in  the  United  States ;  some  of  the  various  species 
are  noted  in  detail  in  the  pages  immediately  following, 
and  others  will  be  accorded  due  notice  in  the  division  of 
the  work  separately  devoted  to  Canada. 

SEA  OTTER 

A  mature  sea  otter  varies  from  forty  to  sixty 
inches,  and  in  instances  exceeds  six  feet  in  length,  in- 
cluding the  short  tail;  the  skin  sets  loosely  on  the  body 
of  the  animal,  and  may  be  stretched  moderately  in  excess 
of  the  apparent  size.  Marked  variations  are  noted  in 
the  color  of  the  fur;  the  predominant  hue  is  a  rich, 
lustrous  black,  interspersed  with  glistening  silvery  hairs 
irregularly  distributed  over  the  surface  of  the  dense  fur 
on  the  back  and  sides  of  the  animal — such  skins  are 
designated  "silvery."  Other  specimens  are  deep  brown 
shading  into  black;  some  are  a  beautiful  dark  plum 
color,  many  are  bluish-grey,  and  a  few  show  a  yellowish 
tinge;  the  under  portion  of  the  body  is  in  all  specimens 
lighter  in  color  than  the  back. 

Black,  silvery  pelts  are  considered  the  most  beauti- 
ful, and  invariably  bring  the  highest  price — somewhere 
near  the  two  thousand  dollar  mark  for  an  exceptionally 
fine  skin. 

The  sea  otter  is  an  amphibious  animal,  and  is  found 
on  the  great  Kelp  beds  along  the  Pacific  Coast,  the  north- 
ern shores  of  Siberia,  on  the  several  islands  adjacent  to 
Alaska,  and  at  Kamtchatka. 

188 


SEA    OTTER 


Somewhat  less  than  a  century  ago  it  was  estimated 
that  upwards  of  fifty  thousand  might  be  taken  in  a  year, 
but  ruthless  slaughter  reduced  the  number  to  a  few  hun- 
dred at  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  at  the 
present  time  very  few  remain,  and  these  would  un- 
doubtedly be  caught  in  a  year  except  for  the  protection 
accorded  by  government  regulations. 

The  fur  of  the  sea  otter  is  indescribably  beautiful, 
attractive  and  luxurious,  and  exceptionally  durable,  a 
combination  constituting  it  intrinsically  the  most  valu- 
able of  all  furs — in  instances  a  single  black  fox  pelt,  pur- 
chased on  speculation,  has  brought  a  higher  figure  than 
a  sea  otter  pelt,  but  the  exceptional  difference  was  not 
a  criterion  of  value. 

For  hundreds  of  years  the  fur  of  the  sea  otter  was 
in  good  demand  in  China,  being  extremely  popular 
with  the  court  at  Peking,  and  Mandarins  at  the  north; 
for  many  years  this  lucrative  trade  was  supplied  by 
Russian  merchants,  the  skins  being  collected  at  and 

189 


190  SEA  OTTER 

shipped  from  Onalaska;  in  later  years  Spanish  and 
American  merchants,  operating  on  the  Pacific  Coast, 
largely  participated  in  the  trade. 

Fur  of  the  sea  otter  has  long  occupied  a  leading 
position  in  favor  with  the  royal  family  and  the  nobility 
of  Russia,  who  fully  realize  its  many  incomparable 
qualities  —  beauty,  attractiveness,  comfort  and  dura- 
bility ;  this  costly  fur  is  used  in  Russia  for  lining  cloaks, 
loose  wraps  and  men's  great  coats,  for  making  attached 
and  detachable  coat  collars,  small  garments,  superb 
muffs,  and  chiefly  as  a  border  or  trimming  for  coats 
and  wraps  composed  of  various  furs,  silk,  velvet  or 
extremely  fine  cloths. 

MINK 

The  mink  belongs  to  the  weasel  family,  of  which  it 
is  one  of  the  larger  members,  and  though  found  in 
many  parts  of  the  world  varies  considerably  in  size, 
color,  luster  and  density  of  fur,  qualities  determining 
trade  value;  mink  of  the  better  grade,  as  regards  size, 
color,  sheen  and  richness  of  fur,  have  their  habitat  in  the 
United  States  and  portions  of  Canada;  the  best  furred 
and  darkest  are  found  in  Nova  Scotia,  other  small  sec- 
tions of  Canada,  and  the  New  England  States;  very 
good  skins  are  regularly  procured  in  New  Jersey,  New 
York  State  and  adjacent  localities.  Larger  mink  yield- 
ing fur  of  medium  quality  are  found  in  Alaska,  of  lower 
grade  in  the  Western  States,  and  smaller  and  inferior 
specimens  abound  in  the  South ;  the  mink  touching  either 
extreme  in  size,  six  or  twenty-five  inches  in  length,  with 
rare  exceptions,  has  a  coat  of  short,  coarse  fur  of  poor 
color,  and  consequently  comparatively  small  value. 

The  color  of  mink  fur  varies  greatly,  ranging  from 


MINK  191 

pale  brown,  tending  to  yellow,  through  all  the  shades  of 
brown  to  nearly  black;  a  line  or  stripe  of  black  runs 
down  the  back  from  heal  to  tail,  adding  much  to  the 
beauty  and  distinctive  character  of  the  pelt  and  gar- 
ments made  of  it. 

The  mink,  with  some  exceptions,  has  a  small  white 
or  pale  yellow  spot  on  the  throat,  and  a  dark  spot  of  fur, 
inferior  in  density  and  luster,  on  either  side  of  the  head ; 
these  off-color  fractions  are  cut  out  of  the  skin  and 
sewed  together  into  coat  linings;  expert  fur  sewers 


MINK 


piece  together  from  eight  to  twenty  of  these  spots  in  a 
block  of  four  square  inches,  and  from  two  to  four  thou- 
sand are  required  to  form  a  lining. 

The  furry  tail  of  the  mink,  varying  from  six  to 
eight  inches  in  length,  and  which  is  dark  brown  to 
brilliant  black  in  color,  is  split  lengthwise  on  the  under 
side,  spread  flat,  and  then  a  number  of  the  tails  are 
sewed  together,  side  to  side,  to  form  a  handsome  trim- 
ming for  finishing  the  bottom  of  a  mink  wrap,  or  gar- 
ment of  a  different  fur,  velvet,  plush  or  fine  cloth. 

The  long  over-hairs,  which  are  remarkably  lustrous, 
rather  than  the  soft  under  fur,  constitute  the  real  beauty 
of  mink;  this  quality  mark  is  most  pronounced  in  skins 
taken  in  December  and  January,  at  which  time  the  fur 
is  densest  and  most  brilliant.  If  caught  too  early  in  the 
autumn  the  under  fur  and  long  hairs  of  the  mink  are 


192  MINK 

not  fully  developed  in  quantity  and  luster ;  if  caught  too 
late  in  winter  many  of  the  glossy  hairs  are  broken  or 
rubbed  off,  owing  to  the  fact  that  in  seeking  food,  woe- 
fully scarce  "midst  snow  and  ice,"  the  animal  enters 
every  discovered  opening  in  earth  or  stump  or  log, 
many  of  which  are  too  small  to  permit  the  ready  passage 
of  the  body  of  the  hungry  hunter,  with  the  result  stated 
above. 

If  caught  too  late  in  the  spring  the  fur  will  be  "off 
color,"  or  faded,  and  much  of  its  beauty  will  have 
vanished  owing  to  the  absence  of  a  large  proportion  of 
the  long  hairs,  as  the  animal  sheds  its  fur  and  hair  as 
the  days  perceptibly  lengthen  and  the  temperature  rises. 

Mink  fur,  caught  at  the  proper  time  and  in  best 
sections,  is  not  surpassed  in  attractiveness,  and  on  ac- 
count of  its  great  durability  is  the  most  economical  fur 
to  purchase  for  personal  use,  even  when  ruling  high  in 
price;  but  while  it  is  in  every  respect  worthy  of  the  ut- 
most favor  of  the  "four  hundred,"  the  really  superior 
thousands  and  the  multitude,  like  all  articles  of  apparel 
it  is  subject  to  the  whims  of  fashion,  coming  into  favor 
with  a  rush,  and  going  out  at  a  bound,  but  too  truly  of 
standard  worth  to  pass  wholly  into  the  discard;  con- 
sumers who  best  know  the  superior  qualities  of  mink, 
and  who  can  afford  to  be  indifferent  to  fickle  fashion, 
wear  mink  at  will — and  every  season  many  wisely  will. 

When  mink  strongly  waxes  or  wanes  in  fashionable 
favor  the  price  per  skin  increases  or  decreases  to  an 
incredible  amount,  remembering  that  the  intrinsic  value 
has  not  changed;  in  i860  prime  eastern  skins  in  the  raw 
were  worth  ten  dollars  each,  and  advanced  to  fifteen 
dollars  prior  to  the  close  of  the  war  of  the  Rebellion; 
at  the  public  sales  in  London  in  March,  1866,  similar 


MINK  198 

skins  brought  less  than  nine  dollars,  in  the  spring  of 
1878  about  three  dollars,  and  in  1883  o"^  dollar  and 
fifty  cents ;  the  swing  back  to  ten  dollars  was  not  com- 
pleted until  near  the  beginning  of  the  second  decade  of 
the  twentieth  century.  A  decline  in  price  immediately 
followed  the  outbreak  of  war  in  19 14. 

Not  all  manufactures  of  mink  are  strictly  what 
they  seem  to  be;  when  the  finest  dark  skins  are  very 
high  in  price,  inferior  sorts  are  darkened,  or  "blended," 
by  applying  a  tincture  to  the  fur;  some  blended  skins 
are  sold  as  natural  eastern ;  the  deception  is  not  prac- 
ticed by  reliable  furriers. 

Lady  Newrich  or  Madame  Pride,  just  to  be  a  little 
different  from  the  "common  run,"  may  desire  a  mink 
cape  thirty  inches  in  depth ;  nature's  offering  consists  of 
skins  close  to  twenty-four  inches  in  length,  manifestly  a 
little  short ;  ^  skilled  fur  worker  can  increase  the 
natural  length  by  piecing  on  part  of  another  skin,  and 
do  it  well,  but  not  "so  that  you  wouldn't  notice  it"  by 
comparison  with  selected  eastern  skins  made  up  on  order 
regardless  of  cost.  A  few  furriers,  and  only  a  few,  have 
mastered  the  art  of  lengthening  a  mink  skin  within  cer- 
tain limits;  the  workman  very  skillfully  effects  the  de- 
sired result  by  cutting  little  notches  in  the  skin,  the 
leather  side;  these  small  slits  are  cut  from  right  to  left 
and  then  vice  versa  along  each  side  of  the  pelt  from  the 
head  downward  to  the  end,  and  the  skin  is  then  gently 
pulled  lengthwise  until  the  notches  are  drawn  out  and 
the  sides  of  the  pelt  again  become  straight  edges. 

A  cape  of  lengthened  dark  mink  skins,  finished 
with  mink  tail  border,  will  attract  general  attention  on 


194  MINK 

account  of  the  unusual  depth  and  beauty  of  the  skins 
composing  it. 

Mink  fur  is  used  in  making  superb  cloaks,  coats, 
capes,  and  fitted  jackets,  collars,  stoles,  scarfs,  muffs, 
and  ladies'  hats;  it  is  also  particularly  attractive  as  a 
wide  or  narrow  trimming,  or  a  lining  for  men's  coats  of 
best  quality.  This  choice  American  fur  is  worn  at 
home,  and  is  accepted  on  merit  abroad. 

peaber 

The  North  American  beaver  is  about  forty  inches 
in  length,  and  has  a  well  proportioned  body;  the  raw 
skin  as  sent  to  market  is  stretched  "open,"  and  varies 
from  oval  to  nearly  circular  in  form. 

The  beaver  is  found  in  many  parts  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  and  formerly  was  abundant  in  all 
sections,  but  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  animal  builds 
very  noticeable  dams  and  houses,  the  comparative  ease 
with  which  it  may  be  captured,  and  a  strong  continuous 
demand  at  remunerative  prices,  the  beaver  has  totally 
disappeared  from  many  places,  and  the  annual  collec- 
tion of  skins,  formerly  exceeding  a  quarter  of  a  million, 
has  declined  to  less  than  one-half  that  total.  For  a 
long  term  of  years  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  alone 
secured  upwards  of  two  hundred  thousand  beaver  skins 
annually,  and  the  catch  remained  above  the  one  hundred 
thousand  mark  until  about  1890 — ^but  has  not  approached 
that  figure  since. 

Trappers  and  hunters  in  years  agone  captured  the 
beaver  both  by  shooting  and  trapping,  but  for  an  ex- 
tended period  traps  only  have  been  used,  as  shooting 


BEAVER  IW 

damages  the  pelt,  and  causes  the  animals  to  leave  the 
locality. 

From  the  date  of  its  discovery  in  America  the 
beaver  has  been  persistently  hunted  and  trapper  pur- 
sued wherever  found,  in  many  districts,  down  to  the 
last  member  of  the  colony;  long  before  America  was 
known  the  beaver  was  hunted  and  skillfully  trapped  by 
native  red  men  for  its  fur  and  as  an  article  of  food. 
The  trapping  of  the  beaver  was  readily  taken  up  by  the 
earliest  settlers  in  America,  who  later  employed  Indians 
to  procure  beaver  skins  in  quantity,  and  skins  brought 
in  by  the  latter  were  always  in  good  demand  because 
carefully  and  correctly  handled. 

In  skinning  the  beaver,  experienced  trappers  cut 
the  skin  down  the  center  of  the  abdomen  from  the  root 
of  the  tail  to  the  head,  and  after  carefully  removing  it 
from  the  carcass  spread  it  out  flat  to  dry;  to  prevent 
curling  or  shrinking  the  pelt  is  sewn  all  aroimd  the  edge 
to  a  hoop,  or  a  strong  withe  bent  and  fastened  in  circular 
form ;  beaver  skins  are  also  dried  on  board  frames  of 
proper  size;  skins  thus  cared  for  are  said  to  be  "properly 
handled,"  and  as  a  rule  bring  the  highest  prices. 

Trappers  in  sections  along  the  Pacific  Coast,  and 
somewhat  farther  east,  conduct  their  campaigns  in  small 
boats  not  wholly  unlike  Noah's  ark,  in  which  they  visit 
the  best  trapping  grounds,  and  at  the  end  of  the  season 
transport  their  catch  to  the  nearest  satisfactory  market. 

Raw  beaver  skins  weigh,  when  dry,  from  one  to 
two  pounds,  and  are  frequently  sold  by  weight.  The 
early  Dutch  settlers,  and  the  last,  on  the  island  of  Man- 
hattan bought  beaver  pelts  by  weight  from  the  In- 
dians, the  skins  being  placed  in  one  scale  and  the  hand 


196  BEAVER 

of  the  Dutch  trader,  in  lieu  of  weights,  pressing  down 
the  other;  and,  as  related  by  Washington  Irving,  no 
matter  how  large  the  pile  of  beaver  skins  might  be  it 
was  invariably  balanced  or  weighed  down  by  the  Dutch- 
man's hand. 

For  some  years  past  beaver  trapping  has  been  re- 
stricted, and  in  some  states  absolutely  prohibited,  by 
wise  laws;  without  this  protection  the  beaver  would 
doubtless  be  extinct  at  this  date. 

The  color  of  the  fur,  which  is  remarkably  dense 
and  soft,  varies  from  a  beautiful  golden  brown  to  darker 
chestnut  hues ;  some  are  reddish-brown,  and  others  very 
dark,  or  nearly  black ;  a  pure  white  beaver  is  occasionally 
caught. 

The  plucked  fur  of  the  beaver  is  bleached  to  a 
delicate  golden  tint,  and  also  dyed  black  or  any  shade  of 
brown  darker  than  the  natural  tone,  and  is  always  ex- 
tremely attractive  and  serviceable;  the  undyed  skins, 
whether  in  hair  or  plucked,  are  most  durable,  and  with 
reasonable  care  will  wear  well  for  many  years.  The  fur, 
whether  natural,  plucked  or  dyed  in  either  state,  is 
specially  suitable  for  coats,  capes,  collars,  caps  and 
gloves  for  either  men's  or  ladies'  wear ;  the  plucked  fur, 
in  any  color,  makes  a  handsome  trimming  or  border 
for  garments. 

The  beaver  formerly  abounded  in  Europe,  and  the 
fur  was  used  to  a  limited  extent  as  early  as  the  fourth 
century;  but  the  animal  gradually  disappeared  from 
most  European  countries,  or  has  continued  to  exist  only 
in  small  numbers  in  isolated  places. 

Some  forty  years  ago  efforts  were  made  to  re- 
acclimatize  the  beaver  in  Russia,  parts  of  Germany,  and 


BEAVER  1»7 

the  Isle  of  Bute;  the  experiment  was  successful  on  the 
Elbe,  Germany,  and  the  animals  increased  so  greatly 
that  they  became  a  nuisance  to  farmers  and  gardeners 
near  the  river,  and  since  1881  many  have  been  killed 
to  keep  the  number  within  bounds. 

The  Marquis  of  Bute  in  1874  introduced  the  beaver 
in  one  of  his  parks  on  the  Isle  of  Bute  in  the  Frith  of 
Clyde,  off  Scotland.  The  Marquis,  who  owned  the  entire 
island,  some  thirty-six  square  miles  in  area,  began  with 
four  beavers,  obtaining  one  pair  in  America  and  the 
others  in  France ;  the  animals  at  once  selected  a  swampy 
section  of  the  park,  where  they  dammed  a  small  brook 
and  constructed  a  lodge ;  two  of  the  creatures  lived  only 
a  short  time,  but  as  the  others  thrived,  more  were  pro- 
cured and  placed  in  the  enclosure  with  gratifying  suc- 
cess, the  number  in  a  few  years  increasing  from  a  few 
lodges  of  three  or  four  members  each,  to  several  popu- 
lous colonies  in  different  parts  of  the  island. 


SKUNK 

Of  the  several  fur-bearing  animals  indigenous  to 
the  United  States  the  skunk  is  the  most  widely  dis- 
tributed, being  found  in  every  nook  and  corner  where  it 
can  procure  food  suited  to  its  needs ;  and  notwithstand- 
ing that  it  is  persistently  hunted,  trapped,  and  worried 
by  dogs,  it  continues  to  thrive  and  multiply  most  notice- 
ably in  proximity  to  the  habitation  of  its  human  foe, 
on  account  of  the  fact  that  food  in  greater  quantity 
and  variety  is  more  readily  obtainable  in  cultivated  sec- 
tions of  the  country  than  in  wild  areas  remote  from 
civilization;  it  is  certain  that  poultry  yards  have  attrac- 
tions for  the  skunk  that  is  ordinarily  acute,  that  open 
spaces  beneath  barns  frequented  by  rats  and  mice  are 
preferred  places  of  abode,  and  that  cultivated  fields  and 
gardens  in  which  grubs,  crickets,  beetles  and  grasshop- 
pers abound  constitute  exceptionally  favorable  feeding 
grounds  for  the  skunk. 

A  mature  skunk  measures  about  eighteen  inches  in 
length  from  the  tip  of  the  nose  to  the  root  of  the  tail, 
which  bushy  appendage  is  nearly  as  long  as  the  body; 
a  few  specimens  procured  in  the  northwest  are  some- 
what larger,  and  others  in  parts  of  the  west  are  smaller, 
or  less  than  eight  inches  in  length. 

198 


SKUNK  IW 

The  fur  of  the  skunk  is  soft,  and  the  long  hairs  are 
abundant,  silky  and  lustrous  in  the  best  black  specimens ; 
the  fur  is  really  beautiful,  and  exceptionally  desirable 
as  a  natural  black  pelage,  but  differences  in  quality  are 
as  great  as  the  variations  in  size,  and  consequently  single 
skins  range  in  value  from  a  few  cents  up  to  two  and 
even  five  dollars  at  times  when  the  article  is  in  very 
strong  demand,  or  speculation  runs  riot.  Some  of  the 
very  small  skins  are  nearly  all  white,  larger  pelts  from 
better  sections  are  nearly  one-half  or  one-quarter  white, 
others  show  only  a  very  small  stripe  of  white,  some  just 
a  few  white  hairs  in  the  forehead,  and  a  small  propor- 
tion of  the  annual  catch  are  entirely  black;  if  the  white 
portion  is  small  it  may  be  cut  out  without  detriment  to 
the  pelt  as  subsequently  manipulated  by  a  skillful  fur- 
rier ;  skins  of  various  sizes  and  grades,  including  those  of 
excellent  quality  in  fur  showing  a  large  proportion  of 
white  are  dyed  in  part  or  entire.  The  animal  has  an 
extremely  offensive  odor,  carried  in  a  small  internal  sac 
near  the  root  of  the  tail;  this  odorous  liquid  is  freely 
ejected  in  circumstances  of  extreme  excitement  or  great 
alarm,  and  in  due  course  some  of  it  attaches  to  the  fur, 
and  when  it  comes  to  market  you  know  it ;  the  fur,  how- 
ever, is  perfectly  deodorized  in  the  process  of  dressing 
— the  name,  on  account  of  the  lingering  association  of 
ideas,  has  to  be  deodorized  also,  a  result  readily  effected 
by  furriers  in  the  "home  land"  who  present  the  article 
under  pleasing  titles,  such  as  black  marten,  American 
sable  or  French  sable;  the  fur  has  always  been  sold  at 
Paris  and  in  other  foreign  markets  under  its  own  name, 
and  during  the  last  few  years  has  enjoyed  right  here  in 


800  SKUNK 

New  York  as  great  favor  as  in  any  previous  period  as 
plain  skunk. 

The  fine  fur  of  the  skunk  is  used  in  the  production 
of  stoles,  scarfs,  capes,  muffs  and  trimmings;  it  is  very 
effective  as  a  broad  border  upon  full  or  three-quarter 
depth  garments  composed  of  other  furs,  or  high  class 
materials. 

The  fur  of  the  skunk  taken  at  the  proper  season 
of  the  year,  when  full  prime,  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful, 
glossy  natural  black  furs  in  the  entire  list  of  peltries, 
but  for  centuries  it  was  totally  neglected  and  rejected 
because  of  prejudice  and  want  of  knowledge — ^there  was 
a  strong  prejudice  against  the  fur  because  of  the  name, 
and  even  when  the  article  was  finally  made  marketable 
it  was,  until  quite  recently,  sold  under  various  names, 
other  than  its  own,  to  insure  its  popularity.  The  fur 
in  the  natural  state  has  an  offensive  odor,  due  to  its 
contamination  by  a  pungent  fluid  with  which  nature 
provides  the  animal,  seemingly  as  a  means  of  defense ; 
furriers  and  fur  dressers  made  many  attempts  to  purify 
the  skins  and  "kill"  the  odor,  but  only  at  first  with  in- 
different success;  for  some  time  the  oil  of  bitter  almonds 
was  used  in  small  quantity  in  the  sawdust  employed  in 
the  final  "drumming,"  but  its  use  proved  to  be  in  effect 
the  displacing  of  one  odor  with  an  other,  and  not  a  satis- 
factory exchange;  at  the  present  time  an  acid  dressing 
is  used,  the  supply  of  which,  originating  in  Germany,  is 
obtainable  in  reduced  quantity  on  account  of  the  war. 

In  1869  Adolph  Bowsky,  fur  dresser  of  New  York, 
successfully  deodorized  skunk  skins  in  the  process  of 
dressing,  and  in  1 870-1 871  the  fur  came  into  favor 
to  some  extent,  and  in  the  succeeding  years  became 


SKUNK  301 

fashionable  at  home,  and  increasingly  popular  abroad. 

Public  sales  of  skunk  skins  were  first  held  in  Lon- 
don in  1858 — there  was  no  consumption  of  the  article 
in  the  United  States  at  that  time;  the  offering  in  Lon- 
don aggregated  8,741  skins;  the  prices  realized  on  this 
little  collection  ranged  from  fifty  cents  to  two  dollars, 
only  one  small  lot  bringing  the  latter  figure. 

In  1859  there  were  73,097  skins  sold  at  public  sale 
in  London,  and  prices  remained  low;  buying  was  for 
continental  account. 

In  i860  offerings  at  London  comprised  135,709 
skins,  which  sold  for  from  twenty-five  cents  to  $2.50, 
only  one  lot  of  451  skins  bringing  the  top  price;  a 
majority  of  the  skins  sold  under  fifty  cents  each. 

There  was  a  reduced  number  of  skins  in  1861,  the 
total  being  112,935,  ^^^  prices  ruled  low;  skunk  skins 
were  used  abroad,  but  only  on  account  of  the  fact  that 
they  were  cheap. 

In  1867  a  prominent  New  York  house,  with  export 
trade,  quoted  raw  prime  black  skunk  ten  to  twelve  cents, 
long-striped  skins  three  to  five  cents ;  the  low  price  being 
due  to  a  marked  decline  in  local  demand,  owing  to  in- 
ability to  perfectly  deodorize  the  fur. 

From  1870  to  1879  there  was  a  fairly  steady  in- 
crease in  the  collection  and  the  consumption  in  America ; 
offerings  in  London  for  the  above  period  averaged  245,- 
221  skins  per  annum;  the  number  offered  in  1879  being 

435>96i. 

For  the  following  ten  years,  1880  to  1889,  an  annual 
average  of  486,524  skunk  skins  comprised  the  offering 
in  London,  with  625,565  skins  as  the  total  offered  in 
1889. 


202  SKUNK 

Beginning  with  the  twentieth  century  the  annual 
offering  of  skunk  skins  at  the  public  sales  in  London 
approximated  a  million  skins  per  annum;  in  1912,  the 
latest  year  for  which  reliable  statistics  may  be  given, 
the  London  sales  offerings  comprised  a  total  of  1,527,771 
skins.  Prices  at  London  in  19 12  ranged  from  18  to  37 
cents  for  No.  3  long  stripe  and  white,  77  to  81  cents  for 
good  white,  to  $5.75  for  prime  black — another  instance 
in  proof  of  the  assertion  that  the  decrees  of  fashion  set 
aside,  in  furs,  the  law  of  supply  and  demand. 

The  man  who  deodorized  skunk  ought  to  have  a 
monument  erected  to  his  memory;  he  surely  converted 
a  waste  product  into  an  article  of  commerce  worth 
millions  per  annum  in  pure  gold. 


RACCOON 

The  raccoon  abounds  in  nearly  all  the  states,  and 
the  annual  collection  of  skins  at  times  exceeds  seven  hun- 
dred thousand.  The  animal  frequents  swamps,  marshes, 
watered  low-lands  and  higher  wooded  sections  where  it 


RACCOON  203 

can  readily  procure  its  necessary  food  consisting  of 
frogs,  insects,  berries  and  small  fruits. 

The  fur  of  the  raccoon  varies  considerably  in  color 
ranging  through  dingy  grey  in  which  black  predom- 
inates, sundry  shades  of  brown  and  grey,  a  rich  plum 
hue,  and  to  nearly  black;  the  furry  tail  is  marked  by 
alternate  rings  of  black  or  dark  brown,  and  light  grey 
or  dull  white. 

In  the  winter  the  raccoon  has  a  full,  dense  coat  of 
fur  and  top  hair;  this  condition  is  noticeable  on  pelts 
obtained  in  southern  and  central  as  well  as  northern 
sections,  and  consequently  size  and  color  are  the  more 
important  factors  considered  in  determining  the  value 
of  individual  skins.  Pelts  approximating  black  rank 
highest  in  beauty  and  worth,  and  when  made  up  natural 
as  neck  piece  or  muffs,  are  remarkably  handsome,  and 
not  readily  surpassed  in  attractiveness  by  the  more  costly 
furs — ^but  raccoon  fur  is  not  always  in  fashion. 

The  article  ranks  high  in  point  of  durability,  and 
in  the  natural  state,  unless  subjected  to  very  careless 
treatment,  will  outwear  the  usual  term  of  fashion's 
favor,  and  may  then  be  dyed  black  with  the  certainty  of 
a  life  of  service  well  worth  the  cost. 

Rough  skins,  in  any  of  the  natural  colors,  are  often 
dyed  a  rich  lustrous  black  as  an  imitation  of  higher 
priced  skunk,  and  in  instances  as  a  substitute  for  beaver ; 
it  is  also  occasionally  plucked  and  dyed  black  to  simulate 
beaver  to  which  it  corresponds  in  appearance,  but  not 
in  durability. 

For  the  manufacture  of  men's  coats  for  wear  in 
the  open  country  where  a  temperature  of  forty  degrees 
below  zero  is  not  uncommon,  raccoon  is  a  favorite  fur, 


801 


RACCOON 


its  use,  however,  is  restricted  on  account  of  the  higher 
cost  as  compared  with  various  heavy  skins  similarly  em- 
ployed in  recent  years.  It  is  a  popular  article  with 
wealthy  automobilists,  and  travelers  in  the  northwest, 
whether  their  great  coats  of  raccoon  are  made  with  the 
fur  as  the  outside  material  or  the  lining. 


^'^^^^ 


RACCOON  HEADS,  AND  RAW  SKIN  OPEN 


iWugferat 

From  the  date  of  discovery,  and  how  many 
centuries  earlier  no  man  knoweth,  the  muskrat  has 
abounded  in  all  parts  of  North  America  where  natural 
conditions  have  been  favorable  to  its  existence;  there 
are  three  essentials,  land,  water  and  food  specially  suited 
to  muskrat  life ;  and  though  all  of  these  have  been  more 
or  less  affected,  circumscribed,  or  eliminated  by  advanc- 
ing civilization,  cultivation  of  the  soil  and  drainage  of 
swamps,  the  muskrat  still  survives  in  vast  numbers  in 
most  sections  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  making 


MUSKRAT 


it  an  easy  matter  to  obtain  three  million  skins  annually 
— and  many  more  whenever  wanted. 

The  muskrat  is  amphibious,  gregarious,  and  very 
prolific,  and  doubtless  would  long  since  have  over-run 
the  continent,  except  that  the  death  rate  is  very  high  as 
the  result  of  adverse  conditions — the  number  of  common 
animals  that  prey  upon  it,  the  severe  and  fatal  cold 
experienced  in  some  sections  and  years,  the  limited  food 
supply  in  all  districts,  and  last  of  all  hungry  and  savage 
man  who  came  upon  the  scene  and  took  all  he  could  get, 
plus  a  few. 

The  muskrat,  better  known  in  Canada  by  its  Indian 
name,  musquash,  to  some  residents  of  country  districts 
as  "mushrat,"  and  in  the  trade  simply  as  rat,  varies  from 
six  to  fifteen  inches  in  length,  those  abounding  in  the 

205 


a06  MUSKRAT 

south  being  smaller  and  more  poorly  furred  than  speci- 
mens having  their  habitat  continuously  farther  north; 
the  color  differs  regardless  of  section  of  origin,  even  in 
the  same  marsh,  and  is  generally  a  dull  or  reddish- 
brown,  the  back  and  sides  being  appreciably  darker  than 
the  under  portion  of  the  body ;  some  specimens  are  very 
dark,  almost  black  on  the  back  and  sides,  and  are 
separately  classed  as  "black"  and  rated  higher  in  value 
than  the  brown  rats,  which  they  surpass  in  density  of 
fur  and  luster  of  hair,  qualities  rendering  them  more 
available  for  manufacture  in  the  natural  state  than  skins 
showing  practically  every  shade  of  brown;  the  fur  of 
the  muskrat  caught  in  the  south  is  a  light  brown,  rather 
coarse  and  thin,  and  low  in  price.  Muskrat  fur  is  more 
durable  than  certain  peltries  of  higher  cost,  and  in  point 
of  utility  outranks  all,  as  it  may  be  and  is  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  every  article  of  apparel  for  which  fur 
may  be  appropriately  employed,  and  is  effective  in  all 
conditions — natural,  plucked,  blended  and  dyed ;  sheared 
it  makes  a  good  imitation  of  mole  skin;  and  when  effi- 
ciently dyed  and  unhaired  resembles  seal  so  perfectly  in 
texture  and  appearance  that  only  an  expert  can  surely 
determine  at  sight  "which  is  which." 

Muskrat  fur  is  extremely  popular  abroad,  even 
more  decidedly  than  in  the  land  of  its  birth,  owing  to  its 
many  good  qualities,  exceptional  utility,  and  the  fact 
that  the  price  makes  it  available  to  a  host  of  consumers 
of  moderate  means.  Skins  are  graded  and  valued  ac- 
cording to  the  geographical  sections  of  origin,  color, 
size,  condition  of  fur,  and  season  of  capture. 

Seasonal  qualifications  as  expressed  by  the  terms,  fall, 
winter  and  spring,  are  of  leading  importance,  though  all 


MUSKRAT  207 

Other  circumstances  are  carefully  considered  in  grading; 

spring  caught  skins,  color  and  size  duly  appraised,  are 
rated  as  best,  in  which  respect  they  differ  from  the  pelts 
of  land  animals  which  evidence  marked  deterioration  at 
that  time  of  the  year,  and  they  are  classed  as  best  owing 
to  the  fact  that  during  their  winter  sojourn  in  the  icy 
waters  of  lakes,  ponds  and  marshes  the  animal  develops 
a  full  or  dense  coat  of  fur  of  richest  hue. 

The  muskrat  is  so  named  because  the  creature 
exudes  an  odor  resembling  musk ;  to  those  who  like  musk 
it  is  agreeable,  but  to  others  is  mildly  offensive ;  the  fur 
is  perfectly  deodorized  in  the  processes  through  which 
the  skin  passes  preparatory  to  manufacture. 

The  muskrat  is  the  most  prolific  of  all  North 
American  fur-bearers;  during  the  century,.  1801-1900, 
a  grand  total  of  139,078,109  skins  was  offered  at  the 
public  sales  in  London. 

In  1848  a  total  of  225,000  American  muskrat  skins 
were  sold  at  public  sale  in  London  at  an  average  of  two 
pence  per  skin;  sixty-two  years  later  4,000,000  skins 
were  similarly  sold,  bringing  an  average  of  fourteen 
pence  per  skin — fashion  determined  the  values  in  each 
instance. 


0.  (iobfrep  Pecker 

A  general  business  in  raw  furs  was  conducted  by 
Wolf,  Becker  &  Company,  at  Chicago,  for  a  number  of 
years  down  to  November,  1887,  at  which  time  the  above 
named  firm  was  succeeded  by  Bach,  Becker  &  Company, 
the  several  members  being:  S.  Max  Becker,  A.  E.  Becker 
and  Emanuel  Bach.  Some  years  later  A.  E.  Becker 
withdrew  from  the  firm. 

For  the  convenience  of  the  trade  at  large  a  branch, 
with  a  commodious  warehouse,  was  opened  in  New  York 
City  in  1894  under  the  efficient  management  of  O.  God- 
frey Becker,  a  man  of  unusual  executive  ability,  tireless 
industry,  and  marked  probity  in  commercial  matters, 
and  a  painstaking  merchant  whose  influence  in  elevating 
the  status  of  the  trade  has  been  pronounced  and  effec- 
tive. The  firm  of  Bach,  Becker  &  Company  dissolved 
by  mutual  consent  on  December  31,  1904,  and  at  that 
time  S.  Max  Becker  and  O.  Godfrey  Becker  purchased 
the  interest  of  Mr.  Bach  and  organized  the  firm  of 
Becker  Brothers  &  Company,  as  successors  to  the  pre- 
ceding concern,  both  at  Chicago  and  New  York;  the 
members  of  the  present  firm  are  S.  Max  Becker,  O.  God- 
frey Becker,  M.  W.  Becker  and  E.  S.  Waldbott. 

O.  Godfrey  Becker  has  been  absorbingly  concerned 
in  the  continuously  expanding  commercial  and  mercan- 
tile interests  of  the  house,  guides  and  guards  its  major 
and  minor  affairs  with  exceptional  zeal,  and  is  unwearied 
in  wisely  directed  efforts  to  insure  the  high  standing  of 
the  name  in  the  business  community;  under  his  careful 
and  considerate  management  the  transactions  of  the 
firm  have  increased  many  fold  in  the  past  decade,  and 

208 


V.  nt  ( 


®.  (Sobfrep  ^Becfeer 


WILD  CAT  AND  DOE 

wam  Cat 

Though  formerly  abounding  in  mountainous  and 
densely  wooded  districts  throughout  the  United  States, 
the  wild  cat  is  steadily  decreasing  in  numbers  on  account 
of  its  incessant  pursuit  by  hunters  and  trappers,  not 
merely  to  secure  the  pelt  but  purposely  to  effect  its  ex- 
termination as  a  fearsome  beast. 

The  wild  cat  resembles  the  Canadian  lynx  in  general 
form  and  color;  the  body,  which  is  broad  across  the 
back,  is  about  thirty  inches  in  length ;  the  head  is  rather 
massive,  and  the  limbs  and  tail  are  short,  the  latter  not 
exceeding  five  to  six  inches  in  length;  the  ears  are 
tipped  with  black.  The  predominant  color  of  the  fur 
is  a  sandy  grey  varied  by  dark  brown  or  black  spots  and 
broken  lines,  one  of  these  dark  lines  extending  down 
the  spine  in  many  specimens ;  on  the  sides  and  limbs  are 
many  brown  and  black  blotches  which  heighten  the 
beauty  of  the  fur  when  made  up  natural  in  sundry  small 
articles  of  apparel.  The  long  dense  fur  and  fine  long 
over-hair  of  the  wild  cat  is  most  popular  when  dyed  a 
handsome  brown  or  lustrous  black ;  in  the  latter  state  it 
is  an  excellent  imitation  of  more  costly  lynx.    The  fur 

211 


S12  WILD   CAT 

of  the  wild  cat  is  also  colored  by  what  is  known  as  the 
Chinese  smoking  process,  resulting  in  a  rich,  dark  and 
uniform  shade  of  brown ;  as  thus  prepared  it  is  at  times 
popular  in  Europe  as  a  serviceable  lining  for  men's  coats, 
less  extensively  for  ladies'  wear,  and  for  making  small 
robes  and  rugs. 

Cibct  Cat 

In  recent  years  under  the  stress  of  harum  scarum 
speculation,  extravagance  and  unexampled  emulation, 
everything  in  fur,  or  that  looked  like  fur,  has  been  mar- 
keted, manipulated  and  manufactured  to  please  the  wise, 
charm  the  improvident  and  appease  the  faddist;  the 
latter  demanded  and  eagerly  accepted  not  something 
good  or  merely  new,  but  the  extreme,  the  limit,  some- 
thing sufficiently  loud  to  catch  the  instant  attention  of 
the  deaf  to  whom  the  rumbling  thunder  passes  as  silently 
as  a  distant  whisper.  To  meet  the  startling  demand 
sundry  skins,  formerly  disregarded  or  long  neglected, 
including  civet  cat,  were  introduced,  exciting  our  wonder 
like  summer  clouds  which  vanish  in  the  hour  of  their 
appearing;  the  most  bizarre  of  all,  civet  cat,  lingered 
longest,  not  as  the  fur  of  fashion  but  as  a  satisfying  fad. 

The  civet  cat  is  found  in  western,  southwestern  and 
southern  sections,  and  is  related  to  the  skunk,  which  it 
closely  resembles  in  size  and  habits,  but  from  which  it 
decidedly  differs  in  intensity  of  odor,  variation  in  color, 
luster  of  fur  and  hair,  and  value.  The  black  fur  on  the 
entire  coat  of  the  animal  is  marked  by  a  large  number 
of  long,  medium-length  and  short  stripes,  rather  broad 
and  also  very  narrow  lines  of  white  fur  (in  some  speci- 


CIVET  CAT 


218 


mens  yellow  instead  of  white)  generally  running  length- 
wise, or  from  head  to  tail,  and  so  irregularly  and 
abundantly  distributed  as  to  be  strikingly  showy,  but 
never  strictly  beautiful.  A  stole  or  muff  of  civet  cat 
fur  will  surely  rivet  the  attention  of  even  the  unobserv- 
ing;  and  a  full-depth  garment  of  this  dazzling  fur,  a 
lew  of  which  were  recently  made  for  daring  dames, 
constitutes  a  crowd-ensnaring  freak. 

Civet  cat  is  excellent  as  a  coat  lining,  works  up 
easily  and  economically,  and  is  satisfactory  as  regards 
durability.    {Skin  of  civet  cat  shown  below.) 


^^^!^  /^^f^  ^^sfl^f 


RINGTAILS 

The  ringtail  cat,  so-called,  should  be  classed  with 
the  civets;  the  animal  has  elongated  body  eighteen 
inches  in  length,  and  a  tail  seventeen  inches  in  length 
marked  with  eight  black  and  seven  white  rings  of  fur, 
the  tip  being  black  interspersed  with  white  hairs.  The 
ringtail  frequents  the  western  coast  of  North  America 
from  British  Columbia  to  Texas,  but  is  not  found  east 
of  the  Sierras. 

The  fur  is  light  greyish  brown,  quite  unattractive 
in  the  natural  state,  but  is  much  improved  by  dyeing  a 
good  brilliant  black. 

Skins  taken  farthest  north  are  of  best  grade;  a 
few  are  so  marked  that  they  may  be  used  in  imitation  of 
chinchilla;  the  greater  number  are  dyed  in  imitation  of 
kolinsky,  when  the  latter  is  popular,  and  are  made  up 
into  ladies'  coats,  muffs  and  neck  pieces. 


2U 


^ouge  Cat 


Hundreds  of  thousands  of  pelts  of  domestic  felines, 
all  dear  to  some  one,  are  annually  slaughtered  for  their 
fur ;  the  large  number  of  skins  secured  and  marketed  is 
consequent  upon  the  fact  that  the  house  cat,  the  only 
name  used  in  the  trade,  is  a  cosmopolitan  animal, 
abounds  in  every  peopled  part  of  the  world,  urban  and 
suburban,  and  universally  flourishes — it  is  nevertheless 
a  profound  mystery  how  so  many  become  commercial 
prizes  without  their  devoted  owners  obtaining  an  inkling 
of  their  destiny. 

The  tragedy  of  the  house  cat  involves  Toms  and 
Tabbies  of  all  colors,  black,  grey,  white,  yellow,  spotted, 
striped  and  combinations  of  all  known  hues ;  the  natural 
blacks  command  the  highest  price,  twenty  to  thirty  cents, 
according  to  market  conditions,  and  the  mixed  colors, 
worth  from  a  nickel  to  fifteen  cents,  are  generally  dyed 
to  something  approaching  uniform  shades,  and  stmdry 
imitations. 

House  cat  fur  is  used  chiefly  in  Europe  and  Asia — 
leaving  some  supplies  for  America;  is  used  in  making 
cheap  coat  linings,  sets,  children's  furs,  and  to  some 
extent  in  the  production  of  toys. 

It  may  be  true  that  the  house  cat,  at  least  the  back- 
yard vocalist,  has  "nine  lives" ;  we  are  not  prepared  to 
confirm  or  controvert  the  assertion,  but  knowing  mer- 
chants assure  us  that  it  has  only  one  pelt. 

Other  fur-bearers  of  value  found  in  the  United 
States  embrace  the  fox,  fisher,  otter,  marten,  bear, 
weasel,  lynx,  wolf  and  wolverine;  these  are  considered 
in  later  pages. 

215 


Babtb  Plusitetn 

Among  the  conspicuous  successes  in  the  New  York 
raw  fur  trade  whose  first  experience  in  the  business  was 
gained  outside  of  New  York  City,  may  be  mentioned 
David  Blustein,  who  came  to  the  United  States  from 
Moscow,  Russia,  at  the  age  of  seventeen  and  with  his 
brother  Isadore  founded  the  firm  of  David  Blustein  and 
Brother,  in  Charleston,  West  Virginia,  in  1891. 

From  the  beginning  the  raw  fur  department  of  the 
business  received  special  attention,  although  hides  and 
medicinal  roots  of  various  kinds  were  also  dealt  in.  The 
reputation  of  the  new  firm  for  fair  dealing,  and  its  readi- 
ness at  all  times  to  buy  any  quantity  of  furs,  hides,  or 
roots,  rapidly  spread  through  the  territory  tributary  to 
Charleston  and  even  beyond  it. 

The  business  continued  along  these  lines  for  sev- 
eral years ;  then  David  Blustein,  always  alert  and  search- 
ing for  ways  and  means  to  better  handle  the  raw  fur 
business,  decided  that  the  full  development  of  the  enter- 
prise demanded  a  location  in  the  fur-consuming  market 
of  America — New  York  City.  To  give  the  idea  a  trial, 
a  temporary  store  was  rented  in  Mercer  Street  in  the 
fall  of  1904,  which  was  maintained  for  the  raw  fur 
season  only. 

After  two  years  the  practicability  of  the  move  was 
thoroughly  demonstrated  and  in  1906  a  large  store  was 
leased  in  Bleecker  Street,  with  David  Blustein  in  charge. 

With  the  advantage  of  the  New  York  outlet,  the 
business  grew  by  leaps  and  bounds  and  when  the  fur 

216 


.^tein  aiiCi 


e  also  cieait  in.    The 


the  f  tir 


Babib  PIu£(tetn 


AMERICAN    BISON 

The  history  of  the  American  bison,  regarded  from 
the  viewpoint  of  the  hide  of  the  animal  as  a  commercial 
commodity,  is  a  shameful  record  of  willful  waste  very 
definitely  followed  by  woeful  want;  during  the  height 
of  the  trade  more  than  two  hundred  thousand  bison  were 
killed  each  season  in  Texas  alone,  and  that  total  was 
duplicated  on  other  hunting  grounds,  merely  for  the 
hides,  the  bodies  being  left  on  the  plains  to  slowly  decay, 
or  be  in  part  devoured  by  ravenous  animals. 

If  the  vast  herds  of  bison  on  the  wide  western  and 
southwestern  plains  had  been  properly  protected  by  the 
government,  half  a  million  might  have  been  taken  year 
after  year,  indefinitely,  both  for  their  hides  and  a  supply 
of  meat  approximating  beef  in  excellence — and  just  now 
the  meat  would  supply  a  "long  felt  want,"  many  yearn- 
ing appetites,  and  be  a  material  help  in  reducing  the  high 
cost  of  living  to  those  who  are  living  high,  and  the 
greater  number  existing  in  hope. 

A  member  of  the  American  board  in  the  Bering  Sea 
Arbitration  Tribunal  at  Paris,  on  being  reminded  that 
the  United  States  was  very  eager  to  preserve  the  fur 
seals  in  which  a  monopoly  was  concerned,  but  was  in- 
different when  the  bison  was  being  exterminated  in  a 

319 


220  AMERICAN   BISON 

free  to  all  onslaught,  stated  that  the  American  bison 
had  been  slaughtered  in  "the  interests  of  civilization." 
If  any  one  has  noticed  any  improvement  in  civilization 
since  the  last  bison  was  killed  thirty  years  ago,  the  fact 
has  not  been  disclosed.  If  the  diplomat  had  said  that 
the  bison  were  recklessly  exterminated  for  the  "land's 
sake" — in  the  interest  of  few — that  the  greedy  might 
find  "a  place  in  the  sun,"  his  meaning  would  have  been 
perfectly  clear.    "Buffalo"  was  the  only  trade  name. 

In  the  seventies  of  the  past  century  about  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  thousand  buffalo  robes  were  shipped  east 
in  a  single  season  from  Fort  Griffin,  Texas,  and  upwards 
of  fifty  thousand  from  Fort  Concho,  or  San  Angelo  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  river;  other  vast  supplies  were 
gathered  in  Montana,  Idaho,  and  the  Territories ;  about 
two  thousand  himters  operated  on  the  plains  of  Texas. 

The  large  buyers  were  J.  &  A.  Boskowitz,  Chicago 
and  New  York ;  Samuel  Shethar  &  Company,  New  York ; 
Hart,  Taylor  &  Company,  Boston.  Indian  caught  and 
handled  hides  came  from  Fort  Benton,  and  posts  in 
Indian  Territory,  through  J.  G.  Baker  &  Company,  T.  C. 
Power  &  Company,  and  other  Indian  traders.  The 
buffalo  robes  were,  with  few  exceptions,  handled  by  fur 
merchants,  and  were  converted  into  sleigh  robes  and 
men's  coats  by  fur  manufacturers. 

The  excessive  slaughter  resulted  in  a  steadily  de- 
creasing collection;  in  1878  the  number  of  robes  mar- 
keted comprised  25,000  from  Texas,  15,000  southwest, 
50,000  northwest,  and  about  10,000  from  scattering 
points;  a  year  later  the  total  fell  to  55,000.  From  the 
latter  date  the  decline  was  rapid,  and  by  1886  none  re- 
mained.     Many   of   the    Indian   tanned   hides    were 


AMERICAN   BISON  221 

illuminated  on  the  leather  side  with  outline  sketches  in 
strong  colors,  especially  bright  reds,  yellows  and  greens. 
The  sketches  were  pictorial  writings  descriptive  of 
the  chase,  battles,  and  interesting  events  in  the  lives 
of  the  red  men.  The  illustration  shown  elsewhere  de- 
picts some  of  the  courageous  deeds  of  a  mighty  warrior. 

WHITE   BISON 

White  beavers,  muskrats,  raccoons,  and  abino 
specimens  of  other  fur-bearing  animals  are  ocasionally 
caught,  but  records  can  be  found  of  only  three  white 
American  bison,  commonly  known  as  buffalo. 

The  first  of  these  was  found  in  1867,  ^.nd  constituted 
part  of  the  trappings  of  a  horse  ridden  by  a  Cheyenne 
chief  who  was  killed  in  a  battle  on  the  Arickaree  River. 

The  second  was  captured  late  in  1871  by  James 
Caspion,  a  hunter,  on  the  plains  of  western  Kansas. 

The  third  was  taken  in  a  hunt  in  1881,  and  the  hide 
was  mounted  and  set  up  in  the  State  House  Museum  at 
Topeka,  Kansas. 

LOBOS  ISLAND  SEALS 

The  191 7  catch  of  Lobos  Island  fur  seal  skins,  a 
total  of  1,873  pelts,  was  sold  at  auction  in  St.  Louis  on 
October  8,  19 17,  bringing  satisfactory  prices. 

It  was  the  first  time  that  skins  of  this  class  have 
been  offered  in  the  raw  at  public  sale  in  the  United 
States. 


POINTING 

Pointing  is  a  term  used  in  the  fur  trade  to  con- 
veniently designate  a  comparatively  modern  method  of 
ornamenting  certain  plain  black  or  brown  furs,  natural 
or  plucked,  by  inserting  longer  white  hairs  in  the  fur  in 
masses  or  at  irregular  intervals ;  the  scattered  or  rather 
closely  set  white  points  suggest  the  title  of  the  operation, 
and  skins  so  treated  are  said  to  be  "pointed."  The  pur- 
pose is  three-fold — to  relieve  the  plainness  of  a  solid 
dark  ground,  temporarily  introduce  a  new  mode,  and 
most  importantly  to  produce  at  moderate  cost  an  effec- 
tive immitation  of  a  fur  of  much  greater  value,  particu- 
larly silver  fox  and  sea  otter.  These  white  hairs  were 
formerly  sewed  in  the  leather,  a  slow  process ;  the  point- 
ing is  now  expeditiously  performed  by  blowing  open  the 
fur  and  firmly  attaching  the  white  hair  to  it  with  a 
small  amount  of  India  rubber  cement. 

Badger,  skunk,  coney  and  grey  fox  hairs  are  used 
in  pointing;  articles  of  this  character  rarely  remain  in 
fashionable  favor  more  than  a  season  or  two  following 
their  re-introduction  in  response  to  a  fair  demand,  or 
to  create  a  "riffle"  in  business. 

Occasionally  a  few  skins  have  been  pointed  with 
white  tips  of  the  small  feathers  taken  from  the  breast 
of  the  grebe,  and  the  showy  plumage  of  the  peacock. 
Best  pointing  is  now  done  with  hairs  of  the  animal  pelt 
to  be  thus  improved. 

222 


AUTOMOBILE   FURS 

A  new  and  increasingly  strong  demand 
for  furs  of  a  distinctive  character  followed 
in  the  gaseous  trail  of  the  automobile  from 
the  date  of  its  introduction,  leading  to  the 
use  of  various  peltries,  some  real  fur  and 
others  seemingly  furry ;  the  articles  required 
in  this  special  field  of  service  embraced 
coats,  caps  and  robes. 

These  auto  furs  and  skins  were  at  the 
outset  extremely  conspicuous,  and  in  many 
instances  made  the  wearers  appear  akin  to 
denizens  of  the  Polar  circles,  but  this  apparent  reversion 
to  primitive  nature  becoming  as  general  as  the  auto  soon 
ceased  to  excite  more  than  passing  attention,  and  noth- 
ing less  than  a  rainbow-hued  coat  would  attract  curious 
interest  at  the  present  time. 

Auto  furs  and  skins  include  natural  raccoon,  not 
selected  and  matched  skins,  but  just  raccoon ;  a  coat  of 
this  fur  apparently  added  seventy-five  pounds  to  the 
weight  of  the  average  sized  automobilist.  Australian 
opossum,  another  bulky  fur ;  China  goat,  diversely  grey, 
and  dyed  black ;  the  skin  of  the  leopard,  an  African  and 
Asiatic  animal  which  cannot  change  its  spots  because 
they  are  so  numerous;  civet  cat,  bear,  hair  seal,  cattle 
hides,  muskrat,  and  sundry  better  furs.  This  demand 
for  auto  furs  materially  benefited  the  trade;  wearers 
generally  learned  in  the  best  way,  by  experience,  the 
comfort  afforded  by  furs,  and  became  consumers  of 
finer  goods;  rich  automobilists  purchased  coats  in  half- 
dozen  lots  for  the  use  of  their  guests,  and  the  practice 
became  so  general  that  auto  supply  houses  now  carry 
fur  coats  in  stock  with  tires,  tubes  and  sundry  parts.  A 
number  of  furriers  make  a  specialty  of  "auto  apparel." 

223 


George  pernatb  ||er?tg 

The  firm  of  Herzig  Brothers  was  founded  in  1865 
by  Simon  Herzig,  in  the  centre  of  the  trade  of  that  day, 
the  Bowery  and  Grand  Street ;  the  business  at  the  outset 
comprised  manufacturing  and  retailing,  and  conse- 
quently was  mainly  local ;  in  later  years  it  was  expanded 
into  importing  furs  and  skins  to  meet  the  requirements 
of  manufacturers  operating  throughout  the  United 
States. 

George  Bernard  Herzig,  son  of  Simon  Herzig,  was 
born  in  New  York  City,  February  9,  1872;  he  was  edu- 
cated in  the  public  schools,  and  attended  the  College  of 
the  City  of  New  York  for  some  time.  In  1890  he  en- 
tered the  fur  business  with  Herzig  Brothers,  then  located 
at  133  Mercer  Street,  serving  in  the  office,  primarilly  in 
charge  of  the  books,  but  actually  in  every  way  in  which 
the  interests  of  the  house  could  be  advanced.  In  1895 
he  laid  aside  routine  office  work  and  entered  upon  a 
series  of  visits  to  Chili  and  Bolivia,  and  incidentally  all 
of  South  America,  covering  a  term  of  ten  years,  for  the 
direct  purchase  of  chinchilla  skins;  a  period  of  twenty 
months  was  devoted  to  one  of  these  trips,  during  which 
time  he  went  far  afield,  climbing  the  mighty  Andes,  and 
meeting  many  natives  with  whom  he  succeeded  in  per- 
fecting arrangements  for  securiqg  enlarged  supplies  of 
the  particular  pelts  sought  by  him. 

At  the  time  of  his  initial  visit  to  Chili,  a  season's 
collection  of  chinchilla  skins  aggregated  about   1,500 

224 


s-'vmn^mmiuissr/'.  ~s»«wj.^  t-^^^^ji^w^rys'.  '^ji,ii»eimi- 


tttiaiu   -^ti> 


George  pernarb  Jler^ig 


GEORGE   BERNARD   HERZIG  226 

dozen;  when  he  had  concluded  his  treasure  quests  he 
had  increased  the  collection  to  36,000  dozen  skins  per 
season.  His  triumph  was  due  to  personal  contact  with 
the  market  and  individual  producers,  and  the  incentive 
of  fairer  values  than  had  previously  ruled. 

Down  to  1896  about  ninety  per  cent,  of  the  annual 
catch  of  chinchilla  skins  was  shipped  to  London ;  subse- 
quent to  that  date  fully  seventy-five  per  cent,  of  the 
yearly  collection  was  forwarded  to  New  York.  At  the 
present  time  no  chinchillas  are  permitted  to  be  caught, 
killed,  sold  or  exported  from  Chili,  under  penalty  of  fine 
or  imprisonment,  or  both.  This  closed  season  is  to  run 
from  March  6,  19 17,  to  March  6,  1922. 

December  15,  191 5,  Mr.  Herzig  went  with  the 
George  B.  Herzig  Company,  as  general  agents  in  the 
Public  Auction  Fur  Sales  Department  of  Funsten 
Brothers  &  Company,  St.  Louis;  all  the  eastern,  Can- 
adian and  foreign  business  of  the  house  is  transacted 
through  the  New  York  office,  39  West  Twenty-ninth 
Street,  and  is  efficiently  handled  on  broad  mercantile 
and  commercial  principles,  with  studious  attention  to 
the  development  and  welfare  of  the  fur  trade  in  it?^ 
best  and  largest  international  relations. 

In  1916  Mr.  Herzig  made  a  special  visit  to  Uruguay 
and  was  entirely  successful  in  arranging  to  have  the 
Uruguayan  Government  consign  the  Lobos  Island  fur 
seal  skins  to  the  auction  sales  in  St.  Louis;  this  is  the 
first  instance  in  which  seal  skins  from  these  rookeries 
have  been  shipped  to  any  market  other  than  London; 
the  introductory  sale  at  St.  Louis  was  held  in  October, 
1917. 


226  GEORGE   BERNARD   HERZIG 

Mr.  Herzig  is  not  only  well  known  in  his  chosen 
field  of  business,  both  in  the  new  world  and  the  old,  but 
he  enjoys  the  good  will  of  a  host  of  friends  and  acquaint- 
ances in  social  circles.  In  earlier  life  he  served  five  and 
one-half  years  in  the  Seventy-first  Regiment,  National 
Guard  of  New  York,  and  at  the  date  of  his  honorable 
discharge  was  a  sergeant  in  the  command. 

In  1898  he  was  in  South  America  on  one  of  his 
periodic  visits,  and  owing  to  that  fact  was  unable  to 
serve  with  his  regiment  in  the  Spanish-American  war. 

During  the  enlisting  period  of  the  summer  of  191 7 
Mr.  Herzig  patriotically  turned  his  warerooms  into  a 
recruiting  station,  in  order  that  the  fur  trade  might  in 
name  and  service  be  aligned  with  the  other  great  Amer- 
ican industries  in  the  mighty  battle  for  freedom  and  the 
extinction  of  barbarism. 


PRIME— UNPRIME 

The  terms  prime  and  unprime  as  applied  to  fur 
skins  qualify  condition  of  both  fur  and  leather;  prime 
skins  are  those  taken  from  animals  caught  or  killed  from 
late  in  the  fall  to  the  close  of  winter,  or  in  temperate 
climates  subsequent  to  the  first  few  severe  frosts  in 
autumn  until  in  the  following  spring  ice  ceases  to  form 
on  ponds  and  marshes;  the  muskrat  remains  prime  a 
little  later,  or  until  all  ice  is  melted  in  the  vicinity  of  its 
habitat. 

Prime  skins  are  fully  furred,  both  fur  and  hair 
having  attained  in  growth  and  quantity  the  limit  in  nat- 
ural  development ;  the  leather  is  clean,  clear  and  of  max- 
imum strength ;  in  color  the  fur  is  at  its  best,  darkest  or 
lightest,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  animal ;  in  some 
specimens,  noticeably  the  muskrat,  when  prime  the 
leather  is  red,  a  blood  hue ;  in  others,  including  the  mink, 
it  is  white,  and  in  others  a  light  brown  or  creamy  tone. 

Unprime  skins  are  only  moderately  well  furred, 
tend  to  shed  the  fur  and  hair,  even  do  so  freely,  and  the 
leather  is  weak,  blue,  and  in  instances  nearly  black ;  un- 
prime skins  rank  considerably  below  prime  in  value  be- 
cause of  their  generally  inferior  quality. 

GRADING 

In  grading  raw  skins  to  determine  individual  value 
many  things  have  to  be  taken  into  account — section  of 
origin,  color,  size,  quantity  and  quality  of  fur,  condition 
of  leather,  season  or  date  of  capture,  methods  of  skin- 
ning and  handling;  an  inefficient  grader  would  quickly 
effect  his  ruin  financially  if  buying  on  his  own  account, 
and  even  more  suddenly  lose  his  position  if  purchasing 

227 


228  GRADING 

for  another.  Skunk  skins  in  the  raw  are  correctly  as- 
sorted in  four  grades  only ;  incorrectly  into  many  grades 
which  are  meaningless,  misleading  and  purposely  unfair 
to  the  inexpert  seller. 

Skins  that  are  entirely  black,  or  that  have  only  a 
very  small  white  spot  in  the  forehead  (called  "Star 
black")  grade  as  black,  or  number  i.  Those  showing  a 
white  stripe  extending  from  the  head  barely  to  the 
shoulder,  are  graded  as  "short  stripe,"  or  number  2. 
Skins  having  a  stripe  of  white  fur  running  in  a  single  or 
double  line  fairly  well  down  the  back,  are  graded  as 
"long  stripe,"  or  number  3.  Skins  in  which  white  pre- 
dominates are  classed  as  white,  or  number  4. 

All  other  conditions  previously  mentioned  are  care- 
fully considered ;  occasionally  a  "black"  may  be  too  small, 
poorly  furred,  or  have  been  caught  too  early  or  late  to 
grade  number  i ;  and  a  "short  stripe"  may  in  every  other 
respect  be  good  enough  to  grade  above  number  2. 

The  best  skins,  everything  considered,  are  procured 
in  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Michigan,  Pennsylvania  and 
Ohio;  various  other  sections  produce  close  seconds. 

The  skunk  is  the  easiest  trapped  of  all  the  fur-bear- 
ers, and  consequently  is  usually  the  earliest  caught  and 
shipped  to  market,  but  as  a  rule  these  early  caught  skins 
are  poorly  furred,  weak  in  leather,  and  at  times  nearly 
worthless. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  it  is  a  very  warm  blooded 
animal  the  skunk  begins  to  shed  its  fur  and  hair  early  in 
the  spring,  as  soon  as  the  temperature  moderately  rises, 
and  on  this  account  late  caught  skins,  as  well  as  those 
taken  too  early,  grade  low  in  value. 


Supplies! 

The  fur  trade  is  dependent  upon  an  exceptionally 
large  number  of  industries  for  essential  supplies ;  the  list 
comprises:  Lumber,  butter,  oil,  salt,  coal,  chalk,  acid; 
the  products  of  manufacturers  in  other  branches,  em- 
bracing, paper,  twine,  nails,  silk,  satin,  wire,  needles, 
shears,  knives,  metal  and  other  combs,  brushes,  scales, 
hammers,  barrels,  cases  of  wood,  paper  boxes,  chemicals, 
canvas,  chamois,  braids,  muslin,  feathers,  cotton,  linen 
and  silk  thread,  buttons  of  various  materials,  rubber 
cement,  artificial  eyes,  dye  stuffs,  saw  dust,  sewing  ma- 
chines, fur  dressing  and  dyeing  machinery,  steel  traps — 
a  few  other  things,  and  cold  storage.  The  contribution 
of  the  fur  trade  to  other  lines  of  trade  is  exceedingly 
small — merely  fur  tails  to  the  brush  maker,  waste  clip- 
pings of  fur  to  hatters'  fur  cutters,  and  shreds  of  pelts  to 
glue  manufacturers. 


229 


SOUTHWARD 

Mexico  and  Central  America,  blessed  with  sunny 
skies  and  southern  breezes,  are  insignificant  fur  produc- 
ing and  consuming  countries.  A  few  raccoon,  small  pale 
mink,  wild  cat  and  puma  skins  are  collected,  but  all  rate 
low  in  quality. 

Deer  skins  and  alligator  hides  are  secured  in  larger 
quantity,  and  are  regularly  shipped  to  the  United  States. 
Deer  skins  were  exported  from  Nicaragua  in  191 6  to 
the  value  of  $42,214,  practically  all  going  to  the  United 
States  to  meet  the  demands  of  glovers. 

Many  interesting  animals  abound  in  the  Republic  of 
Panama,  the  greater  number  of  the  species  found  there 
doubtless  having  traveled  thither  at  a  remote  period 
from  northern  districts  to  escape  pursuing  enemies,  but 
unsuccessfully,  as  pursued  and  pursuers  are  found  hunt- 
ing and  hunted  in  the  same  trackless  and  almost  impene- 
trable forests. 

The  fur  bearers  in  Panama  include  the  opossum, 
raccoon,  jaguar,  ocelot  and  panther;  the  first  named  is 
most  abundant  and  differs  most  in  size  and  appearance, 
some  specimens  being  smaller  than  a  guinea  pig,  and 
others  equal  in  size  to  the  largest  northern  specimens; 
peltries  of  the  various  species  of  fur-bearers  are  infer- 
ior to  northern,  the  average  temperature  of  Panama  be- 
ing eighty  degrees,  and  rarely  six  or  eight  degrees  lower, 
at  which  temperature  skins  never  become  prime. 


280 


CANADA. 


In  1634  the  population  of  Canada,  other  than  na- 
tive Indians,  was  approximately  sixty  souls;  during  the 
twelve  succeeding  years  colonies  settled  along  the  bor- 
der, and  the  number  of  white  inhabitants  increased  to  a 
total  of  about  twelve  thousand,  and  trading  with  the 
Indians  began.  This  early  fur  trade  in  Canada  was 
largely  regulated  by  officials,  and  it  is  doubtless  true  that 
considerable  favoritism  was  shown,  some  being  allowed 
to  trade  with  but  slight  restraints,  and  others  being  de- 
nied the  privilege  of  dealing  with  the  natives ;  the  trad- 
ing was  conducted  by  barter,  the  methods  and  mediums 
of  exchange  differing  but  little,  if  any,  from  those  in 
common  practice  farther  south ;  at  the  outset  all  trading 
was  in  the  hands  of  French  and  English  pioneers,  the 
former  leading  in  number  and  activity.  From  the  year 
1535,  when  France  took  possession  of  the  wonderful 
northland,  and  more  importantly  since  its  cession  to 
Great  Britain  in  1763,  Canada  has  continuously  been 
one  of  the  greatest  fur  producing  countries  of  the  world. 

Pierre  E.  Radisson  and  Medard  Chonart  left 
France  and  went  to  Canada  in  1654  and  began  trading 
for  furs  with  the  Indians  near  the  St.  Lawrence  River ; 
in  the  season  of  1658-9  they  extended  their  operations 

231 


STARTING   OFF  AFTER  NOON  REST 
(Photo  loaned  by  Revillon  Freres  Trading  Co.,  Ltd.) 


farther  westward  with  success;  three  years  later  they 
prosecuted  the  trade  northward,  and  during  this  expedi- 
tion, which  extended  over  many  months,  claimed  to 
have  visited  what  is  now  known  as  Hudson  Bay,  but  the 
claim  was  not  well  substantiated.  They  continued  their 
operations  for  several  years,  and  consequently  preceded 
the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  by  which  they  were  subse- 
quently employed  on  very  fair  terms;  they  were,  how- 
ever, rather  unreliable,  or  at  least  were  not  dependable, 
as  they  left  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  and  went  over 
to  the  assistance  of  French  rivals,  and  later  returned  to 
the  English  company.  Practically  all  of  the  early  years 
of  the  fur  trade  in  Canada  were  marked  by  a  decidedly 
fierce  war  of  competition,  at  times  threatening  the  ex- 
tinction of  one  side  or  the  other ;  forts  built  by  the  French 
and  English  trading  companies  changed  hands  again 
and  again,  until  the  really  more  reputable,  and  positive- 
ly most  fair  dealing  of  the  several  concerns  gained  con- 
trol and  unquestionably  the  legal  right  to  operate.  In 
1680-82  a  war  of  competition  prevailed  between  the  fur 
traders  at  Albany,  New  York,  and  Quebec,  Canada,  in 


CANADA  283 

the  purchase  of  beaver  skins,  the  English  at  the  former 
post  paying  about  thirty  per  cent,  more  than  the  French 
at  Quebec — the  traders  at  Quebec,  considering  the  very 
low  figures  at  which  beaver  pelts  were  then  purchased, 
might  have  met  the  issue  by  paying  the  Albany  price,  but 
while  it  has  always  been  an  easy  matter  to  cut  wages, 
there  does  not  seem  to  have  been  a  time  when  reducing 
dividends  was  not  viewed  as  a  hardship.  The  rivalry 
continued,  and  Indians  south  and  north  of  the  border 
were  for  a  long  time  in  a  state  of  real  war,  and  it  was  not 
until  after  the  peace  of  1690  that  an  open  market  was 
established  at  Montreal ;  in  the  following  year  vast  sup- 
plies of  Indian  goods  were  carried  to  Montreal,  and 
stocks  at  Albany  were  depleted.  Montreal  duly  became 
the  chief,  if  not  the  only  market,  the  French  being  the 
dominant  traders,  and  so  remaining,  until  the  capture 
of  Quebec  by  the  English  in  1759,  since  which  date  all 
Canada  has  been  under  English  rule. 

Peter  Pond,  an  American,  in  1775,  traveled  to  the 
far  north  in  Canada  as  a  fur  trader;  in  1777  he  ex- 
tended his  trips  to  Deer  River,  thirty-eight  miles  be- 
yond Lake  Athabaska,  and  during  the  following  year 


FUR  TRADING  POST  ISLE  LA  CROSSE  LAKE 
(Photo  loaned  by  Revlllon  Trifm  Trading  Co.,  Ltd.) 


234  CANADA 

erected  a  fort  at  that  point ;  it  was  the  first  fort  built  in 
that  remote  section  and  was  named  The  Fur  Emporium. 
In  1785  Peter  Pond,  Peter  Pangman,  Alexander  N. 
McLeod  and  John  Gregory,  the  latter  two  Montreal  fur 
merchants,  formed  a  rather  strong  company,  and  were 
successful  traders  with  the  Indians  in  the  vicinity  of 
Athabaska,  along  the  Red  and  Saskatchewan  Rivers,  and 
other  northern  regions,  and  became  strong  competitors 
— fair  and  otherwise — of  the  Northwest  Company,  a 
powerful  association  organized  by  fur  merchants  of 
Montreal  in  1783,  the  chief  factors  being  Simon  McTav- 
ish  and  Joseph  and  Benjamin  Frobisher,  with  thirteen 
other  stockholders. 

In  1 787  the  new  company  of  traders  and  their  older 
rivals,  the  Northwest  Company,  united  for  peace  and 
prosperity;  the  business  of  the  combined  concerns  con- 
tinued to  be  managed  at  Montreal.  A  year  later  the 
trade  of  the  associated  companies  amounted  to  about 
$200,000,  and  in  1798  had  increased  to  about  $600,000. 
In  those  days  the  * 'turn-over"  required  considerable 
time;  receipts  of  supplies  and  their  distribution  to  the 
Indians,  and  the  forwarding  and  final  sale  of  a  season's 
collection  of  furs,  usually  consumed  about  three  and  one- 
half  years. 

Lachine  early  became  the  point  from  which  traders 
and  voyageurs  set  out  on  their  annual  expeditions  in 
quest  of  fur;  they  made  their  way  northward  in  birch 
bark  canoes  on  the  Ottawa  River,  carrying  supplies  out- 
ward, and  returning  with  cargoes  of  peltries — some  of 
the  canoes  carried  up  to  three  thousand  pounds.  These 
voyageurs  included  French  Canadians,  half-breeds  and 
Indians,  all  of  whom  were  efficient  canoemen. 


CANADA  235 

Many  organizations  were  set  in  motion  from  time 
to  time  to  corner  the  fur  trade  of  Canada,  or  kill  compe- 
tition. Some  of  them  were  good,  others  were  quite  dif- 
ferent in  many  respects ;  but  only  one  association  of  early 
creation,  or  subsequent  formation,  has  survived  the 
stress  peculiar  to  the  industry  from  the  date  of  organ- 
ization to  the  present  time. 

The  Northwest  Company,  a  Canadian  concern  en- 
gaged in  collecting  raw  furs  in  lower  Canada,  gradually 
extended  its  operations  southward  along  the  Rocky 
Mountains  into  United  States  territory,  embracing  a 
considerable  portion  of  Oregon ;  the  company  was  eager 
to  control  the  entire  raw  fur  industry,  and  some  of  the 
members  were  not  over  particular  regarding  the  means 
employed  to  gain  their  purpose.  The  competition  in- 
dulged assumed  the  destructive  character  of  war,  not 
apparent  but  actual  war,  with  its  customary  horrors, 
fears,  losfe  and  death;  this  undesirable  condition  was 
terminated  in  1821,  in  which  year  the  Northwest  Com- 
pany was  absorbed  by  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company. 

For  many  years  after  the  final  conquest  of  Quebec  by 
the  English,  there  was  a  marked  decline  in  French  par- 
ticipation in  the  raw  fur  trade  in  Canada  either  by  large 
single  interests  or  organizations.  Ten  years  ago  the 
French  came  back  in  one  notable  instance,  the  firm  of 
Revillon  Brothers  entering  the  field  in  great  earnestness 
and  financial  strength;  they  promptly  built  large  ware- 
houses, established  stores  and  trading  posts  in  the  newly 
settled  provinces  and  the  more  remote,  almost  trackless, 
Northwestern  wilds,  and  energetically  began  the  collec- 
tion of  black  fox,  beaver,  lynx,  marten,  mink  and  other 
superfine  skins,  in  steamship  and  carload  lots — that  is, 


FUR  TRADING  POST  ON  SLAVB  LAKE 
(Pkoto  loaned  by  Revillon  Frires  Trading  Co..  Ltd.) 


quantities  handled  by  only  one  other  concern  in  the  trade 
of  the  Dominion.  In  the  House  of  Commons  at  Ottawa, 
Canada,  May  i6,  1906,  the  Private  Bills  Committee 
granted  federal  incorporation  to  Revillon  Brothers ;  the 
charter  gave  them  exceptional  powers,  embracing  the 
right  to  build  railways  to  connect  their  trading  posts; 
to  operate  vessels  for  transporting  passengers  and 
merchandise;  construct  telephone  and  telegraph  lines; 
hold  lands  and  exercise  various  hunting  and  fishing 
privileges. 

The  Revillons  are  operating  under  this  charter  with 
gratifying  results,  but  the  title  of  the  house  was  in  191 1 
changed  to  Revillon  Freres  Trading  Company,  Limited. 
English  and  French,  two  great  concerns  imbued  with 
sound  business  principles,  are  once  more  participating 
in  the  country  dear  to  both  because  of  interests  and  tra- 
ditions centuries  old;  both  have  grown  wise  with  the 
waning  of  the  years,  and  their  operations  instead  of  be- 
ing marred  by  destructive  competition,  grow  apace  un- 

236 


CANADA 


287 


der  the  rule  of  rational  co-operation,  not  as  enemies  but 
as  allies,  sane  and  upright,  and  worthy  of  enduring  suc- 
cess. 

We  show  elsewhere  on  an  insert  page  in  halftone,  a 
photograph  of  York  Factory,  one  of  the  more  import- 
ant posts  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company. 

Fur-bearers  indigenous  to  the  Dominion  embrace 
many  species,  the  annual  catch  of  individual  specimens 
extending  to  totals  of  six  and  seven  figures — muskrat 
approximating  1,000,000,  beaver  100,000,  marten  70,- 
000,  foxes  30,000,  and  several  others  incredibly  large 
numbers;  the  yearly  collection,  however,  possesses  su- 
perior interest  on  account  of  the  quality  rating,  as  the 
fur  ranks  at  highest  grade  in  color,  density  and  excel- 
lence in  detail,  as  a  rule  surpassing  in  quality  the  fur 
obtained  from  animals  of  the  same  species  taken  in  other 
places,  except  northern  and  northeastern  sections  of  the 
United  States  and  other  localities  where  equally  low 
temperatures  prevail  during  the  winter  months. 


INTERIOR  OF  A  FUR  TRADING  STORE 
(Photo  loaned  by  RevlUon  Freres  Trading  Co.,  Ltd.) 


288  CANADA 

For  many  years  traders  regularly  secured  their 
supplies  of  fine  peltries  almost  exclusively  from  the  In- 
dians, and  though  red  men  operating  from  mission  and 
trading  stations,  upon  which  they  are  largely  dependent, 
continue  to  procure  valuable  collections  of  desirable  furs, 
much  of  the  trapping  and  hunting  is  now  done  by  white 
men,  a  small  army,  who  spend  the  entire  season  at  their 
traps  in  the  older  sections  of  the  country  or  the  wilds 
of  the  great  northwest.  For  upwards  of  two  hundred 
years  this  initial  branch  of  the  fur  business  was  under 
the  absolute  rule  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  which 
established  one  trading  post  after  another  in  a  steady 
advance  northward,  and  ever  farther  north  to  the  con- 
fines of  the  Arctic  Circle,  employing  a  great  number  of 
Indians  and,  later,  white  men  to  trap  and  hunt,  outfitting 
them  in  advance  and  equitably  adjusting  differences  on 
their  return  with  their  catch  at  the  end  of  the  season. 
The  peltries  thus  secured  formed  when  finally  brought 


WIFE  OP  A  POST  MANAGER  VISITING  OLD  INDIANS 
(Photo  loaned  by  Revillon  Frirea  Trading  Co.,  Ltd.) 


CANADA  .  239 

together  a  grand  total  unequalled  in  volume  for  many 
decades,  or  until  quite  recently,  when  under  the  incen- 
tive of  very  high  prices  trapping  in  the  United  States 
became  general  from  coast  to  coast  and  north  to  south ; 
the  annual  collection  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  is 
still  important  in  quantity  and  of  maintained  quality, 
and  in  one  article  in  particular,  beaver,  has  continuously 
exceeded  the  combined  collections  of  all  other  concerns 
and  individual  traders. 

All  skins  secured  by  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company 
are  shipped  to  London  where  they  are  offered  at  public 
sale  annually,  beaver  and  muquash  in  January,  and  all 
other  articles  in  March. 

The  European  war  seriously  restricted  the  opera- 
tions of  trappers,  traders  and  every  one  concerned  in  the 
fur  business  throughout  Canada,  dating  from  the  be- 
ginning of  the  season  of  1914. 

Canada  is  important  both  as  a  fur-producing  and 
consuming  country ;  owing  to  the  length  and  severity  of 
the  winters  fur  coats,  wraps  and  smaller  articles  are 
quite  generally  worn  by  men,  women  and  children  on 
account  of  the  comfort  afforded,  and  the  further  fact 
that  they  are  pre-eminently  fashionable.  Domestic  and 
foreign  furs  are  worn,  the  former  predominating.  The 
principal  manufacturing  establishments,  wholesale  and 
retail,  are  located  in  Montreal,  Toronto  and  Quebec,  but 
there  are  furriers  in  every  city  from  the  border  north- 
ward to  Edmonton. 


0tttv 

The  otter  has  a  furry  coat  of  remarkable  beauty 
and  durability;  the  species  inhabiting  the  river  sections 
of  Canada,  the  country  of  largest  collection,  has  a  long 
flexible  body,  twenty  or  more  inches  in  length,  short 
limbs,  webbed  feet,  and  a  tail,  twelve  to  fifteen  inches  in 
length,  covered  with  short  fur;  the  color  is  a  pleasing 
chestnut  brown,  darkest  down  the  spine,  mixed  with 
whitish  gray  on  the  under  portion  of  the  body ;  the  long 
water-hairs  are  very  glossy. 

Fur  of  the  otter  is  used  in  the  natural  state,  or 
plucked  and  unhaired  is  made  up  natural  or  dyed  brown 
or  black;  it  is  particularly  well  adapted  for  making 
jackets,  capes,  collars,  caps  and  gloves,  and  for  border- 
ing elegant  garments  made  of  other  furs,  or  costly 
textiles.  Some  skins,  noticeably  those  from  Nova  Scotia, 
and  occasionally  others,  are  very  dark,  nearly  black,  and 
incomparably  luxurious  and  beautiful  made  up  natural. 

240 


OTTER 


241 


For  many  years  the  catch  in  Canada  ranged  between 
fifteen  and  twenty  thousand  skins,  not  falling  below  the 
smaller  number,  and  rarely  exceeding  the  greater  by 
more  than  two  hundred  skins ;  in  recent  years  the  catch 
has  greatly  decreased,  and  at  no  distant  date  will  touch 
zero. 

iHarten 

The  pine  marten  frequents  the  wooded  districts  of 
North  America  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific;  but 
chiefly  in  localities  in  which  the  pine  tree  flourishes; 
this  choice  of  habitat  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  animal 
secures  its  chief  food  supply,  squirrels,  birds  and  birds' 
eggs,  in  the  branches  of  these  evergreen  trees. 

Marten  skins  of  good  quality  are  obtained  in 
Alaska  and  northwestern  sections  of  the  United  States, 
but  the  best  specimens,  both  in  depth  of  color  and  density 
of  fur,  are  found  in  the  Hudson's  Bay  districts ;  the  fur 
is  a  dark,  handsome  brown,  approaching  black,  darker 
on  the  back  and  sides  than  on  the  under  portion  of  the 
body;  the  tail,  which  is  about  ten  inches  in  length,  is 


MARTEN 


242 


MARTEN 


black  and  fully  furred.  The  color,  however,  is  not  the 
same  in  all  specimens,  many  being  a  light  shade  of  brown 
on  the  back  and  sides,  and  yellow  on  the  throat  and  under 
portions.  Owing  to  these  differences  in  color  the  skins 
are  graded  as  "dark"  or  "pale";  dark  skins  as  a  rule 
command  the  higher  price,  but  in  the  case  of  the  marten 
this  rule  has  its  exceptions,  pale  skins  at  times  being  the 
more  valuable  on  account  of  greater  fashionable  demand. 

Marten  is  one  of  the  few  really  handsome  furs 
subject  to  extreme  fluctuations  in  value  in  consequence 
of  the  favor  or  neglect  of  fickle  fashion.  The  fur  is 
used  in  making  superb  coats,  capes,  sets  and  trimmings ; 
it  is  generally  popular  in  Europe. 

Hudson's  Bay  sable  is  the  name  quite  commonly 
given  to  marten  fur  in  the  manufactured  state ;  not  being 
an  imitation  or  a  poor  fur,  it  would  unquestionably  give 
entire  satisfaction  to  every  consumer  if  sold  simply,  and 
correctly,  as  marten, 

LYNX 

The  lynx,  once  quite  common  throughout  the  world. 


LYNX  243 

has  become  extinct  in  many  places,  and  is  evidently  mak- 
ing its  last  stand  in  force  in  the  wilder  sections  of  Can- 
ada, with  a  trail  through  the  Yukon  and  terminating  in 
Alaska. 

The  Canadian  lynx,  called  Loupcervier  by  the  Can- 
adians, is  a  powerful  animal  some  three  feet  in  length; 
has  a  rather  thin  or  slight  body,  long  stout  limbs,  short 
tail  black  at  the  tip,  long  and  sharply  pointed  ears.  In 
winter  the  fur  is  dark  grey  on  the  back,  reddish  grey  on 
the  sides,  lighter  on  the  under  parts,  and  more  or  less 
diffusely  marked  with  spots  and  dashes  of  black  and 
brown.  Skins  of  superior  quality  are  obtained  in  the 
Hudson's  Bay  district;  the  collection  varies  materially 
in  quantity,  and  the  price  of  raw  skins  has  shown 
marked  changes,  from  three  to  thirty-five  dollars,  touch- 
ing the  latter  figure  when  the  demand,  though  not  at  the 
time  really  great,  exceeded  the  supply.  Lynx  fur, 
which  is  long,  soft  and  dense,  is  a  superb  article  when 
dyed  a  rich,  deep  lustrous  black ;  it  is  also  effective  dyed 
dark  brown,  and  meets  with  considerable  favor  made  up 
natural,  either  in  stoles,  collars,  capes,  muffs  or  trim- 
mings. 

It  is  also  used  natural  for  these  various  purposes, 
but  is  most  popular  when  dyed  black. 


Jfisfier 


Rash  speculation  in  everything  furry,  beginning 
mildly  about  1905  and  senselessly  increased  annually 
until  checked  by  war  in  19 14,  in  carrying  the  price  of 
all  peltries  well  above  "top  notch"  figures  is  justly 
chargeable  with  effecting  the  approximate  extermination 
of  fur-bearers  of  highest  intrinsic  value,  including  the 
fisher,  and  the  slaughter  of  the  innocents  would  doubt- 
less have  run  on  to  the  finish  if  several  million  men  had 
not  found  in  killing  each  other  a  freer  field  for  the 
exercise  of  their  savage  instincts. 

The  fisher,  also  called  black  cat  and  pekan,  is  the 
largest  member  of  the  marten  or  sable  family,  and  is 
found  in  Canada,  the  Lake  Superior  region,  northern 
part  of  New  York  State,  and  occasionally  in  Pennsyl- 
vania and  a  little  farther  south;  specimens  obtained  in 
Canada  during  the  proper  season  are  very  fine,  being 
fully  furred  and  of  good  color ;  the  animal  has  a  rather 
slender  body,  long  head  terminating  in  a  pointed  muzzle, 
short  limbs,  and  long  tail  quite  furry  at  the  base ;  the  fur 
is  dense,  but  shorter  than  that  of  the  marten.  Con- 
siderable variations  are  noticeable  in  the  soft  fur  of  the 
fisher,  the  general  hue  being  blackish,  with  a  greyish 
tinge  on  head  and  shoulders;  some  specimens  are  dark 
brown  on  the  back  and  dingy  grey  on  the  sides ;  others 
are  a  paler  shade  of  brown,  and  a  few  show  a  white  spot 

244 


FISHER  245 

on  the  throat.  Canadian  skins  rank  highest  in  value, 
and  of  these  exceptionally  fine  specimens  are  caught 
in  the  Moose  River  district.  The  fur  of  the  fisher  is 
occasionally  in  fashion  in  Paris  and  America,  but  the 
bulk  of  the  collection  has  usually  been  marketed  in 
Russia ;  it  is  used  in  making  costly  robes,  fine  neckwear, 
handsome  trimmings,  and  ladies'  hats.  It  is  made  up 
natural. 

Fisher-tail  trimming  has  at  times  been  popular  in 
Paris. 

Fisher  frequents  a  very  limited  range  in  the  Adiron- 
dacks,  N.  Y.,  making  its  home  in  the  rocky,  mountainous, 
and  lake  regions,  chiefly  in  Hamilton  County,  and  mod- 
erately in  the  eastern  section  of  Herkimer  County,  and 
bordering  southern  parts  of  St.  Lawrence  and  Franklin 
Counties. 

A  comparatively  small  number  are  obtained  on  the 
Pacific  coast;  these  rate  considerably  lower  in  price. 

Fashion  determines  the  value,  or  rather  the  price. 
In  the  winter  of  1906  when  fisher  was  only  moderately 
fashionable,  dark  raw  skins  brought  $6.00  to  $10.00; 
in  1 910  increasing  favor  caused  the  price  to  advance 
to  $10.00  to  $15.00,  and  in  191 3  a  strong  fashionable 
demand  carried  the  raw  skins  to  extreme  figures,  from 
$25.00  to  $50.00.  At  the  end  of  19 16  the  price  was 
$25.00  to  $30.00. 


BADGER 

Badger,  a  mottled  grey  fur,  is  obtained  annually 
in  moderate  quantity,  is  pleasing  in  appearance,  service- 
able, and  low  in  price.  It  is  adapted  to  various  uses,  and 
either  natural  or  dyed  makes  good  neck  pieces,  muffs, 
linings  and  an  effective  trimming.  Skins  of  the  badger 
are  sometimes  used  for  covering  trunks. 

Dressed  pelts  are  impervious  to  water. 

Coats  for  automobilists  and  aviators  may  be  made 
of  badger  skins,  and  will  be  found  protective  and  dur- 
able. 

246 


WoMvint 

ELL.USTRATED  BELOW 

Though  the  wolverine  is  quite  common  to  Europe 
and  Siberia,  it  survives  in  greatest  numbers  in  Canada; 
in  appearance  it  resembles  a  young  bear,  but  is  much 
more  ferocious  and  voracious,  the  latter  characteristic 
having  earned  for  it  the  name  of  glutton.  The  wolverine 
varies  in  length  from  thirty-six  to  forty-eight  inches, 
including  the  tail  which  is  covered  with  fur  and  an 
abundance  of  long,  pendant  hairs;  in  winter  the  short 
fur  is  almost  a  true  black,  but  at  other  seasons  is  brown- 
ish-black on  the  back  and  rather  reddish-brown  on  the 
sides;  the  muzzle  and  paws  are  a  clear  black.  Though 
the  annual  collection  is  small  the  fur  is  popular  at  times 
as  a  novelty;  it  is  serviceable  at  all  times,  and  is  made 


247 


248  WOLVERINE 

Up  natural  as  a  trimming,  neck  pieces,  muffs,  and  excep- 
tionally handsome  carriage  robes. 

Esquimaux  use  pieces  of  wolverine  fur,  when  they 
can  get  it,  to  ornament  their  rather  plain  and  peculiar 
fur  garments. 

The  wolverine  is  a  fierce  and  forever  hungry  enemy 
of  other  fur-bearers,  and  in  the  course  of  the  year  de- 
vours many  beavers  and  muskrats,  its  preferred  food, 
catching  them  in  the  open  and  digging  them  out  of  their 
houses,  and  on  account  of  this  wasteful  habit  trappers 
would  gladly  witness  the  death  of  the  last  member  of 
the  tribe. 

The  wolverine  has  strong,  sharp  snowy-white  claws 
which  are  highly  prized  as  trophies  by  Indian  captors 
of  the  savage  creature. 

By  keeping  well  within  the  bounds  of  its  only  dis- 
covered habitat,  secluded,  hilly  and  rocky  districts  of 
limited  area  in  extreme  northern  sections  of  North 
America  and  the  Hudson's  Bay  Country,  the  musk  ox 
has  survived  to  the  present  time,  but  is  found  only  in 
small  herds  of  from  half  a  dozen  to  thirty  individuals; 
it  is  a  heavily  built,  broad-backed  animal,  thirty  to  forty 
inches  in  height,  having  horns,  rather  large  in  circum- 
ference, radiating  from  the  center  of  the  forehead  out- 
ward to  the  sides  of  the  head,  then  downward  and  thence 
upward  to  the  tips.  The  general  color  of  the  male  is 
brown,  usually  quite  dark;  the  female  is  much  darker, 
or  nearly  black;  the  hair  on  the  neck  and  between  the 
shoulders  is  long,  and  on  the  sides  of  very  great  length, 


MUSK   OX 


MUSK  OX  HEAD 


reaching  nearly  to  the  ground;  the  under  fur  is  soft, 
and  greyish  in  color.  The  small  annual  collection 
usually  sells  readily;  it  is  one  of  the  few  articles  that 
has  advanced  one  hundred  per  cent  at  a  single  sale  in 
London.  The  fur  of  the  musk  ox  is  made  up  natural, 
and  is  quite  attractive.  Three  hundred  and  twenty  skins 
were  obtained  in  Canada  in  191 5. 


ts^isSiiMiSB^iiS:^ii^\Ss$iSSfiS^ 


POXES 


Foxes  abound  everywhere,  but  whether  their  sur- 
vival in  present  large  numbers  is  due  to  their  proverbial 
cunning,  or  exceptional  proficiency  in  procuring  neces- 
sary food,  remains  to  be  determined  by  naturalists  after 
mature  deliberation  a  few  centuries  hence. 

Foxes,  though  showing  no  difference  in  form,  vary 
more  pronouncedly  in  size  and  color  than  any  other 
animal,  not  excepting  man,  who  is  numerically  next  as  a 
varient  in  both  particulars;  but  for  o'  a  that,  extending 
the  comparison,  a  fox  is  a  fox  the  world  over,  a  fact 
which  sometimes  leads  to  trouble  in  the  trade,  as,  for 
instance,  when  best  red  fox  skins  in  the  raw  are  rated 
at  five  dollars  each  trapper  thinks  the  fox  skin  he 
caught,  being  a  fox,  should  rank  in  the  five-dollar  grade. 

In  size  foxes  vary  from  eight  to  forty-two  inches  in 
length  from  tip  to  tip,  and  from  six  to  sixteen  inches  in 
height;  the  caudal  appendage,  ranging  up  to  fifteen 
inches  in  length  is  a  showy  "tip,"  being  extremely  bushy 
or  well  furred,  always  showy  whether  adorning  its 
owner  by  birth  or  purchase,  or  as  the  "brush,"  or  trophy, 
of  the  red-coated  huntsman  first  in  at  the  kill — ^by 
hounds. 

Foxes  inhabiting  very  cold  districts  have  coats  of 
long,  dense,  downy  fur  and  over-hair  of  exquisite  fineness 
and  beauty,  and  in  instances  of  great  value,  the  price 

250 


FOXES  251 

being  graded  according  to  the  color,  quality,  and  size  of 
each  pelt,  in  the  order  here  given ;  all  of  the  very  valuable 
classes  are  found  in  Canada,  and  on  that  account  are 
noted  in  this  section. 

Black  Fox.  The  black  fox  is  found  in  Siberia, 
vicinity  of  Hudson's  Bay,  Alaska,  and  in  rare  instances 
at  other  places ;  only  a  few  skins  are  procured  annually, 
and  these  command  high  prices;  the  fur  is  very  soft, 
glossy  and  abundant,  and  is  a  rich  black  on  all  parts  of 
the  animal  except  the  tip  of  the  tail,  which  is  pure  white. 

Silver  Fox.  The  silver  fox  ranks  next  in  value  to 
the  pure  black,  and  is  more  numerous;  fine  specimens 
are  procured  in  Canada,  Alaska,  Greenland  and  occa- 
sionally in  the  United  States  near  the  Canadian  border ; 
the  fur  is  mainly  black  interspersed  with  white  on  parts 
of  the  body,  chiefly  on  the  back  near  the  shoulders  and 
rump ;  these  white  hairs  vary  in  quantity,  in  some  speci- 
mens being  scattered  and  moderate  in  amount,  and  in 
others  appearing  in  splashes  and  patches  of  considerable 
size. 

Blue  Fox.  The  color  of  the  fine,  soft  fur  of  the 
blue  fox  is  not  a  distinct  blue,  but  is  a  smoky  hue,  or  a 
whitish-brown  on  the  surface;  the  under  fur,  however, 


RED  FOX 


shows  a  bluish  tinge.  The  blue  fox  is  found  in  Yukon 
Territory,  on  the  mainland  and  islands  of  Alaska,  in 
Greenland  and  Iceland;  the  annual  collection  is  not 
large ;  at  times  when  the  article  is  in  fashionable  request, 
imitations  are  freely  produced  in  dyed  skins  of  lower 
cost. 

Cross  Fox.  This  specimen,  which  is  of  good  size, 
is  handsomely  marked,  and  its  name  is  due  to  a  dark 
transverse  stripe  over  the  shoulders,  which  is  particu- 
larly effective  when  the  fur  is  made  up  into  a  large  muff. 
As  a  whole  the  fur  is  irregular  in  color,  being  in  part 
grey,  brown,  sandy  and  nearly  black;  these  tones  vary 
in  depth  in  individual  specimens.  The  animal  is  found 
in  Canada,  northern  New  York,  Michigan  and  Wis- 
consin; the  annual  collection,  from  three  to  seven  thou- 
sand, is  comparatively  small. 

White  Fox.  The  white  or  Arctic  fox  has  a  delicate 
and  very  beautiful  coat  of  white  fur  in  the  winter  months 
only,  its  fur  in  summer  being  a  dull  brown  or  bluish- 
grey.  The  white  fox,  like  the  Esquimau,  thrives  best  in 
cold  latitudes,  and  the  annual  supply  of  skins  is  procured 

252 


FOXES  253 

in  Greenland,  Iceland,  Siberia  and  extreme  northern 
sections  of  North  America.  White  fox  is  either  in 
strong  demand  or  is  almost  totally  neglected,  and  with 
unexampled  frequency  has  advanced  or  declined  one 
hundred  per  cent  in  the  London  sales;  the  small  collec- 
tion, however,  regularly  passes  into  consumption,  dyed 
skins  serving  as  excellent  imitations  of  black  or  blue  fox. 

Red  Fox.  Skins  of  the  red  fox  are  marketed  each 
year  in  greater  number  than  those  of  any  other  color 
or  name;  this  member  of  the  fox  family  abounds  from 
Pennsylvania  to  Canada  and  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to 
the  Missouri  River,  and  as  many  as  eighty  thousand 
have  been  trapped  and  shot  in  a  single  season — and 
probably  the  full  total  was  not  entered  upon  the  mortality 
list.  The  general  color  is  reddish-yellow  on  the  upper 
portion  of  the  body  with  greyish  effect  upon  the  back, 
white  on  the  stomach  and  tip  of  tail,  and  black  on  feet 
and  tail;  some  are  a  clear  sandy  red  and  white,  and 
others  yellow  and  white,  on  the  portions  of  the  body  as 
specified  under  the  general  color.  Fur  of  the  red  fox 
is  almost  always  universally  popular. 

Grey  Fox.  Compared  with  the  preceding  members 
of  the  race  the  grey  fox  is  noticeably  inferior  in  fine- 
ness and  color  of  fur ;  at  times  the  pelt  is  too  low  in  price 
to  be  worth  the  work  incidental  to  trapping  even  when 
the  animal  persists  in  getting  into  a  trap  set  and  baited 
for  a  different  creature.  The  grey  fox  is  found,  next 
in  number  to  the  red,  in  every  part  of  the  United  States 
including  the  extreme  south,  across  the  border  in 
Mexico,  and  to  a  very  limited  extent  in  Canada.  The 
prevailing  color  of  the  fur  is  grey  varied  with  black, 
sides  grey  mixed  with  reddish-yellow,  throat  white,  and 


264  FOXES 

tail,  a  fair  "brush,"  greyish-black;  many  of  the  longer 
hairs  are  black  with  the  exception  of  a  single  dash  of 
white  at  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  from  the  tip. 

Kitt,  or  Swift  Fox.  This  specimen  is  the  plebian 
member  of  the  fox  family  in  North  America,  being  least 
in  size  and  value ;  the  head  is  short  and  broad,  legs  and 
ears  long,  and  tail  bushy  terminating  in  a  black  tip ;  tiie 
predominant  color  of  the  fur  is  yellowish-grey,  darkest 
down  the  spine,  lighter  or  pale  reddish-yellow  on  the 
sides,  and  nearly  white  on  the  under  portion  of  the  body. 

Yellow  Fox.  The  Fennec,  a  very  small  yellow 
furred  fox,  is  found  in  parts  of  Africa.  Red  foxes,  not 
the  same  as  the  American,  abound  in  Australia,  and 
other  foxes  in  sundry  sizes  and  colors  frequent  the 
snowy  wastes  and  flowery  fields  from  Pole  to  Pole,  every 
continent  and  country,  populous  or  desert. 

Fox  fur  is  continuously  popular  somewhere,  natural 
and  dyed,  for  making  neck  pieces,  linings,  muffs, 
carriage  robes  and  floor  rugs;  though  not  durable,  it  is 
generally  "worth  the  price"  on  account  of  its  luxurious 
appearance. 


.C3 


The  Hudson's  Bay  Company  was  organized  by 
Englishmen  of  wealth  in  1668- 1669,  including  Prince 
Rupert,  Duke  of  Albemarle,  Duke  of  York,  Earl  of 
Arlington,  Earl  of  Craven  and  several  baronets  and 
knights,  altogether  eighteen  stockholders ;  it  is  of  record 
that  King  Charles  was  also  a  stockholder  to  the  extent 
of  three  hundred  pounds,  but  whether  he  paid  in  that 
amount  is  in  doubt,  though  we  think  he  did — it  is  certain 
that  he  accepted  dividends  on  the  amount  stated. 

In  May,  1670,  under  the  leadership  of  Prince 
Rupert,  the  organization  was  granted  a  charter  of  in- 
corporation by  Charles  II.,  of  England,  the  title  being: 
"The  Governor  and  Company  of  Adventurers  of  Eng- 
land Trading  Into  Hudson  Bay";  instead  of  this  long 
title,  the  name  commonly  used  has  been:  "Hudson's 
Bay  Company";  the  king's  interest  mentioned  in  the 
grant  was  "two  elk  and  two  black  beavers"  annually,  but 

255 


266  HUDSON'S   BAY   COMPANY 

he  seems  to  have  been  well  pleased  with  an  hundred  and 
fifty  guineas  on  his  unmentioned  stock. 

The  motto  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  is :  "Pro 
Pelle  Cutem,"  skin  for  skin;  the  coat-of-arms  shows 
four  beavers,  and  the  cable  address,  "to  this  day,"  is 
"Beaver." 

The  charter  authorized  the  Company  to  carry  on 
the  fur  trade  and  conduct  a  general  business  with  the 
Indians  at  Hudson  Bay  and  Victoria ;  the  initial  capital 
of  the  Company  was  £8,420;  the  territory  controlled 
exceeded  an  area  of  three  million  square  miles ;  this  large 
grant  of  land  was  subsequently  increased. 

For  convenience  of  administration,  collection  of 
peltries,  and  protection  against  white  and  red  opponents, 
the  company  erected  a  number  of  forts,  trading  posts, 
and  spacious  warehouses ;  the  territory  was  divided  into 
a  number  of  departments,  embracing  at  one  period  or 
another  posts  as  follows :  Northern  Department,  twenty- 
six  posts;  Southern  Department,  twenty-eight  posts; 
Columbia  Department,  sixteen  posts ;  and  Montreal  De- 
partment, thirty  posts;  the  head  office  for  Canada  T^as 
and  is  in  the  last  named  department,  and  city  of  the 
same  name. 

The  operating  force  for  each  of  the  several  depart- 
ments embraces  the  chief  factors,  chief  traders,  clerks, 
apprentice  clerks,  interpretors,  laborers;  a  number  of 
voyageurs  and  Indian  trappers  are  retained,  and  an  army 
of  trappers,  white  and  red,  carry  their  season's  catch  of 
peltries  to  the  posts  for  barter  or  sale.  These  trappers, 
when  the  transaction  is  by  barter,  are  given  pieces  of 
wood  of  peculiar  form,  one  piece  of  wood  for  each  skin 
delivered ;  these  pieces  of  wood  may  be  exchanged  at  the 


gorfe  Jfactorp,  an  important  l^ubjson'K  J3ap  Companp  l^oit 


Wtite  3^accoon 


HUDSON'S  BAY  COMPANY  259 

America  south  of  58°  north  latitude  for  a  period  of  twen- 
ty years  from  1840  at  an  annual  rental  of  two  thousand 
otter  skins.  A  little  later  the  company  endeavored  to 
have  Great  Britain  purchase  Russian  America,  now 
Alaska,  generously  agreeing  to  repay  to  the  government 
the  entire  purchase  price  with  interest  to  date  of  settle- 
ment in  return  for  the  exclusive  privilege  of  taking  furs 
in  the  acquired  territory.  England  let  the  bargain  slip, 
and  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  ceased  to  operate  subse- 
quent to  the  purchase  of  the  country  by  the  United 
States  in  1867. 

In  1855  ^^^  company's  capital  stock  of  two  million 
dollars  returned  a  profit  of  about  six  per  centum;  for 
some  time  past  dividends,  except  when  augmented 
through  land  sales,  have  not  been  large,  profits  on  furs 
being  smaller  than  in  the  earlier  centuries  when  native 
trappers  bartered  skins  for  general  supplies  in  very  lim- 
ited knowledge  of  the  value  of  either. 

The  capital  stock  of  the  company  has  been  sold  as 
high  as  four  hundred  per  cent  premium,  but  none  has 
been  offered  in  open  market  in  many  years. 

Since  the  expiration  of  the  last  charter  of  the  Hud- 
son's Bay  Company  in  1859,  the  entire  country  has  been 
open  to  all;  in  1870,  exactly  two  hundred  years  subse- 
quent to  the  organization  of  the  concern,  the  Hudson's 
Bay  territory  was  ceded  to  Canada,  and  is  now  divided 
into  four  great  provinces.  The  company  still  owns  a 
few  square  miles  of  good  land  in  the  newer  provinces; 
and,  though  its  fur  trade  is  steadily  shrinking,  conducts 
a  growing  business  in  general  merchandise. 

The  first  sale  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  was 
held  in  London  in  168 1  and  was  a  pronounced  success. 


260  HUDSON'S  BAY  COMPANY 

and  was  regarded  by  all  in  interest  as  a  g^eat  event. 
The  first  dividend  was  distributed  three  years  later,  and 
was  a  fifty  per  cent  divide;  another  fifty  per  cent  divi- 
dend was  declared  in  1688,  and  a  twenty-five  per  cent 
dividend  in  the  following  year,  and  also  in  1690.  Divi- 
dends have  been  smaller  in  recent  years — but  from  1684 
to  191 6  is  a  long  dividend  paying  period.  To  those  best 
acquainted  with  the  continuously  sound  and  successful 
organization  it  is  known  as  the  Honorable  Hudson's 
Bay  Company,  a  title  bestowed,  not  because  of  incompar- 
able achievements  in  trade,  or  science,  or  war,  but  freely 
accorded  as  comprehensively  expressive  of  character. 

^etofounblanb 

A  moderate  number  of  fur  bearing  animals  are 
found  in  rugged  Newfoundland,  an  island  in  the  Gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence ;  the  fur-bearers  include  the  mink,  marten, 
otter  and  fox.  The  tendency  is  steadily  toward  a  de- 
crease in  number,  with  no  prospect  of  an  increase  except 
by  breeding  in  captivity. 

St.  Johns,  which  is  one  of  the  oldest  cities  on  the  con- 
tinent, and  which  is  today  only  moderately  modern,  is 
the  center  of  trade.  Fishing  is  the  great  industry,  and 
some  of  the  fishing  vessels  sailing  farthest  north  bring 
in  collections  of  peltries  from  time  to  time ;  these  skins 
are  marketed  at  St.  Johns,  but  a  considerable  number  are 
sold  singly  or  in  small  lots  at  big  prices  to  interested 
tourists. 

Sturdy  and  remarkably  capable  mariners  annually 
visit  the  coast  of  Labrador  in  quest  of  young  hair  seals, 
which  are  born  in  vast  numbers  on  the  great  ice  fields 


NEWFOUNDLAND 


261 


in  March  of  each  year ;  these  newly  born  seals  are  caught 
when  only  twelve  to  twenty  days  old,  and  before  they 
have  entered  the  water  for  the  first  time  in  their  experi- 


ence. 


The  hunters  sail  mainly  from  St.  Johns,  and  under 
favorable  conditions  have  returned  with  forty  thousand 
seal  skins  as  the  catch  of  the  crew  of  a  single  vessel,  and 
upwards  of  a  total  of  three  hundred  thousand  skins  as 
the  fleets'  harvest  in  a  single  season. 

The  young  hair  seal  is  chiefly  valued  for  the  large 
amount  of  excellent  lubricating  oil  obtained  from  the 
animal;  the  hide  is  also  utilized  in  the  production  of 
leather  and  occasionally  and  to  a  limited  extent  in  near- 
fur  garments  and  minor  novelties. 


Hair  seals  are  widely  distributed,  being  found  at 
the  Poles,  in  all  oceans,  upon  the  shores  of  the  several 
continents  and  many  islands,  being  nearly  ubiquitous,  in 
which  particular  they  are  surpassed  only  by  the  fox. 
They  abound  in  greatest  numbers,  at  certain  seasons, 
off  the  coasts  of  Labrador,  Newfoundland,  Greenland 
and  Iceland,  and  at  times  are  extremely  numerous  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  South  Pole;  they  evidently  circumnavi- 
gate the  globe,  pursue  regular  orbits,  and  may  be  classed 
as  comets  among  animals,  with  mother  earth  instead  of 
the  sun  as  a  center,  certain  islands  as  their  zodiacal 
signs,  and  appetite  as  the  constant  revolutional  force. 

Hair  seals  differ  considerably  in  appearance  and 
are  on  that  account  known  by  several  names,  such  as 
harp  seal,  black-sided  seal,  blue-sided  seal,  hooded  seal, 
and  common  harbor  seal.  The  harp  seal  has  a  large 
mark  in  contrasting  black  and  white  hairs  on  the  shoul- 
ders resembling  a  harp  in  form;  the  hooded  seal  has 
large  folds  of  skin  on  the  back  of  the  neck  which  the 
animal  inflates  when  attacked  making  it  serve  as  a  hood 
to  protect  the  head ;  blue  backs,  are  young  hooded  seals, 
and  bedlamers  are  males  under  one  year  old,  at  which 
age  the  harp-shaped  mark  appears ;  the  other  names  re- 
late either  to  the  appearance  or  habits  of  the  animals, 
noticeably  leopard,  crested  and  jumping  seal;  all  differ 
from  the  fur  seal,  importantly  in  consequence  of  the  fact 
that  their  coats  consist  wholly  of  hair,  and  have  no  par- 
ticular interest  for  furriers  except  that  occasionally 
skins  are  dyed  black  as  an  odd  trimming.  The  oil  is  the 
component  of  greatest  value,  the  skin  being  chiefly  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  patent  leather. 

When  born,  and  for  a  period  of  about  two  months, 

262 


HAIR .  SEALS  263 

all  hair  seals  have  coats  of  long  woolly  hair,  which  is  uni- 
formerly  white,  and  on  that  account  are  known  as  white 
coats ;  the  skins  of  these  young  seals  are  at  times  in  mod- 
erate demand  in  the  fur  trade.  Approximately  one 
million  hair  seal  skins  are  marketed  annually,  the  largest 
single  collection  being  obtained  by  the  experienced  seal- 
ers of  St.  Johns,  Newfoundland,  operating  off  the  coast 
of  that  country  and  Labrador. 

The  sealers  of  St.  Johns  made  their  first  catch  of 
hair  seals  in  1763,  at  which  time  they  went  out  in  a  few- 
small  sailing  vessels,  or  fishing  boats,  to  effect  the  cap- 
ture of  some  of  the  animals  observed  off  the  shore  of 
northeastern  Newfoundland  and  Labrador;  the  initial 
catch  was  small,  and  for  some  years  did  not  exceed  from 
three  to  four  thousand  skins  per  season ;  the  number  was 
gradually  increased  as  the  demand  for  oil  and  skins  de- 
veloped, and  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century 
the  annual  catch  exceeded  sixty  thousand  skins;  larger 
and  larger  vessels  were  built,  up  to  forty  tons  burthen 
each,  and  these  were  later  largely  superseded  by  fast 
steamers,  twenty-six  fine  vessels  with  an  aggregate  ca- 
pacity of  ten  thousand  tons ;  some  sailing  vessels  are  still 
engaged  in  sealing,  but  for  a  long  term  the  steamers 
have  taken  about  five-sixths  of  the  yearly  collection  of 
skins. 

The  hair  seals  are  born,  about  the  first  of  March, 
on  the  ice  which  lies  off  the  coast  in  vast  fields,  many 
square  miles  in  extent ;  more  than  a  million  old  seals  con- 
gregate upon  these  ice  fields  late  in  February,  presenting 
a  wonderful  scene  of  life  and  incessant  activity.  The 
young  seals,  which  constitute  the  greater  part  of  the  an- 
nual catch  require  from  twelve  to  fifteen  days  for  de- 


264  HAIR   SEALS 

velopment  warranting  profitable  capture;  at  the  end  of 
about  three  weeks  they  leave  the  ice,  and  after  they  have 
entered  the  water  cannot  be  caught.  For  many  years 
in  succession  the  sealers  set  out  early,  arriving  at  the 
ice  fields  simultaneously  with  the  female  seals,  but  as 
they  indiscriminately  killed  both  old  and  young,  the  leg- 
islature of  Newfoundland  regulated  the  departure  of 
all  fleets,  sailing  vessels  not  being  allowed  to  leave  St. 
Johns  until  the  first  and  steamers  the  tenth  day  of 
March.  As  the  vessels  arrive  at  the  hunting  grounds 
the  men,  who  carry  heavy  clubs,  scalping  knives  and 
towing  lines,  go  at  once  upon  the  ice  and  the  slaughter 
begins ;  the  hunter  first,  using  his  club,  strikes  the  young 
seal  a  stunning  blow  across  the  nose,  then  cuts  the  skin 
open  along  the  abdomen  from  head  to  tail,  and  by  a 
quick  motion  detaches  the  skin  and  adhering  blubber,  or 
fat,  from  the  flesh,  and  deftly  turning  it  into  a  roll 
leaves  it  upon  the  ice,  and  passes  on  to  the  next  killing; 
when  six  or  eight  seals  have  been  killed  the  rolled  pelts 
are  attached  to  the  towing  line  and  drawn  off  to  the  ves- 
sel— if  allowed  to  lie  too  long  a  time,  the  skins  and  fat 
would  become  frozen  fast  to  the  heavy  ice. 

Young  seals,  fifteen  to  twenty  days  old,  weigh  about 
forty  pounds,  and  have  a  protective  covering  of  fat 
three  inches  in  thickness,  between  the  flesh  and  the  skin ; 
this  fat  is  tried  into  oil  at  St.  Johns  as  a  lubricant  of  gen- 
eral utility  and  considerable  aggregate  value — approxi- 
mating a  million  dollars  in  a  successful  season;  the 
skins  are  pickled  and  sent  to  England  and  France  to  be 
tanned,  the  finished  product  being  used  in  Europe  in  the 
manufacture  of  ladies'  shoes,  pocketbooks,  book  bind- 
ings and  other  small  articles.    The  owner  of  a  vessel 


HAIR   SEALS  265 

pays  all  charges  for  outfit  and  maintenance,  and  salary 
to  the  captain,  whether  the  expedition  meets  with  suc- 
cess or  failure;  owner  and  crew  share  the  proceeds  of 
the  catch,  the  former  taking  two-thirds,  and  the  balance 
being  equally  divided  among  the  members  of  the  crew. 
Sailing  on  the  ice  fields  off  the  shores  of  Newfoundland 
and  Labrador  does  not  invariably  result  profitably,  is 
always  attended  with  danger,  and  not  infrequently  with 
great  suffering  and  loss  of  human  life;  at  times  the 
floating  ice  moves  to  and  fro  in  impenetrable  masses 
making  it  impossible  for  the  sealers  to  reach  the  solid  ice 
fields  until  after  the  young  seals  have  entered  the  water, 
in  which  circumstance  the  season  proves  a  total  loss; 
crews  on  the  main  ice  are  at  times  similarly  prevented 
from  returning  to  their  vessels,  and  in  consequence  suf- 
fer severely  on  account  of  the  extreme  cold,  and  in  in- 
stances perish ;  and  in  some  seasons  some  of  the  sailing 
vessels  and  steamers  are  crushed  and  lost  in  the  heavy 
pack  ice.  The  slaughter  of  the  young  hair  seals  is  cruel, 
and  develops  in  the  sailors  a  degree  of  heartlessness 
exceeding  that  experienced  even  on  the  field  of  battle; 
the  fearful  extent  to  which  the  killing  is  carried  is  shown 
by  the  record — a  single  vessel  has  taken  into  St.  Johns  a 
catch  of  forty-two  thousand  young  and  old  seals,  and  a 
total  of  nearly  seven  hundred  thousand  have  been 
slaughtered  by  the  entire  fleet  in  a  single  season. 

Russian  hunters  annually  capture  several  thousand 
harp  seals  off  the  eastern  shores  of  the  White  Sea,  which 
are  frequented  by  large  herds  of  seals  of  this  class  in 
February  and  March;  the  seals  are  pursued  in  small 
boats  as  they  are  carried  along  the  coast  on  the  ice  floes, 
and  are  captured  in  the  same  manner  as  at  Newfound- 


HAIR   SEALS 


land.    Sealing  fleets  are  regularly  sent  to  the  Arctic  Sea 
from  various  ports  of  Sweden,  Denmark  and  Norway. 

Skins  of  the  young  seals  are  occasionally  used  in  the 
fur  trade,  and  are  known,  the  skins,  as  wool  seal ;  they 
may  be  used  in  making  sets  and  trimmings. 


BREEDING  IN  CAPTIVITY 

Wild  fur-bearing  animals  are  steadily  going  the 
"way  of  all  the  earth"  to  give  place  to  the  more  rapid 
and  seemingly  limitless  increase  of  the  human  species; 
and  as  the  response  to  the  call,  "back  to  the  land,"  be- 
comes more  general,  as  it  surely  will,  our  furry  friends 
will  swiftly  join  the  "great  majority";  the  carnivora 
will  pass  first,  the  bear,  deer  and  other  large  animals 
will  closely  follow,  and  those  that  can  continue  to  find 
life  sustaining  sustenance  in  proximity  to  man  will  lin- 
ger latest,  but  in  ever  decreasing  numbers  to  a  minimum 
devoid  of  commercial  interest. 

Wild  fur-bearers  are  already  practically  extinct  in 
China  except  the  central  and  extreme  northern  districts 
where  the  character  of  the  soil  renders  its  cultivation  im- 


BREEDING  IN   CAPTIVITY  267 

practicable;  in  the  more  populous  countries  of  Europe 
comparatively  few  fur-bearers  remain  to  the  present 
time;  in  the  new  world  the  same  condition  is  being  has- 
tened by  increasing  occupation  of  the  soil,  destruction  of 
forests,  drainage  of  low  lands,  the  wanton  slaughter  ef- 
fected by  professional  and  amateur  sportsmen,  trappers 
and  pot  hunters,  and,  all  importantly,  the  almost  univer- 
sal consumption  of  furs,  the  demands  regularly  exceed- 
ing the  supply. 

This  demand  will  continue  so  long  as  it  can  be  met, 
and  it  can  only  be  supplied  in  the  near  future,  other  than 
to  the  satisfaction  of  an  exclusive  few,  by  breeding  fur- 
bearing  animals  in  captivity;  this  is  now  being  done  in 
a  small  way  and  with  a  degree  of  success  warranting  the 
material  extension  of  the  industry. 

Millions  of  dollars  have  been  invested  in  breeding 
foxes,  particularly  blacks,  in  Prince  Edward  Island, 
other  parts  of  Canada,  Alaska,  and  some  places  in  the 
United  States,  but  to  date  the  industry  instead  of  being 
conducted  on  the  basis  of  the  fur  value,  has  been  pro- 
moted as  something  very  like  a  "get  rich  quick"  enter- 
prise depending  upon  the  sale  of  the  live  animals  at  in- 
ordinately high  figures  to  hopeful  breeders;  this  spec- 
ulative craze  will  ultimately,  and  not  remotely,  give 
place  to  better  reasons  for  fox  breeding,  and  the  ac- 
quired experience  in  raising  the  animals  for  stock  divi- 
dends will  be  of  very  great  value  when  the  foxes  are 
bred  for  fur — the  saner  purpose.  Other  breeders  in  the 
United  States  are  raising  skunk,  mink,  opossum,  rac- 
coon and  muskrat  for  their  pelts,  and  the  industry  is 
destined  to  expand  and  become  the  source  of  future 
supply. 


$elt  TBimtmiom 


Members  of  the  various  species  and  families  of  fur- 
bearers  vary  in  size  as  they  grow,  owing  to  differences  in 
food  supply  and  conditions  of  environment;  the  sizes 
given  in  mentioning  the  several  animals  refer  to  full 
grown  specimens,  but  as  very  many  never  reach  that 
state  the  skins  received  in  the  markets  show  extreme 
variations  in  dimensions,  the  failure  of  a  g^eat  number 
to  attain  full  development  being  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
aged  and  half-grown  and  the  youngsters  found  their 
curious  way  into  the  traps,  perished  in  the  experience, 
and  were  shipped  to  town  at  the  market  price — all  things 
considered. 

We  append  the  dimensions  of  a  number  of  dressed, 
or  both  dressed  and  dyed  skins,  the  proportions  in  which 
manufacturers  are  most  interested,  and  which  determine 
the  number  of  pieces  and  cost  of  his  output ;  some  skins 
exceed  the  dimensions  given,  others  are  neither  so  long 
or  so  broad,  but  the  measurements  express  a  fair  aver- 
age: 

Northern  mink,  14x9  inches;  Southern,  10x7 
inches. 

Mink,  central  sections,  15  to  24x5  to  6  inches. 

Civet  cat,  14x6  inches,  open. 

Badger^  25x15  inches. 

Marten,  20x4  inches,  cased. 

Ermine,  12x2  inches,  cased. 

Raccoon,  northern,  27x15  inches;  dressed  skin  is 
irregular  in  width. 

Siberian  squirrel,  10x5  inches,  open. 

Nutria,  15  to  21x12  to  15,  broadest  across  the  hind 

268 


DIMENSIONS  269 

quarters,  and  comparatively  narrow  across  the  shoul- 
ders. 

Cross  fox,  35x7  inches,  cased;  others  much  smaller. 

Fisher,  25x5  inches,  cased. 

Otter,  35x5  inches,  cased;  both  slightly  larger  and 
smaller  get  into  the  traps. 
Fitch,  19x25^  inches,  cased. 

Lynx,  30  to  36x10  inches,  open. 

Wallaby,  about  20x10  inches. 

Skunk,  skins  of  the  American  skunk  vary  so  greatly 
in  both  dimensions,  that  it  is  impossible  to  state  anything 
like  a  fair  average. 

Mink,  fox,  weasel,  marten  and  similar  skins  vary 
considerably  in  length,  but  do  not  differ  materially  in 
width. 

Japanese  marten,  dressed  open,  24  by  6  inches. 


PVBIilC    (iAI^E, 

AT  TB> 

liOBdon  CoiBBaereial  Sale  Rooms,  HUneing  LaiOf 

OM 

Wednesday,  Thursday,  Friday  &  fflonday 

AIJ6UST  25th,  26tli,  Zlih  k  30th,  1$5$, 

At   ^K*m3W  o'clock  precisely. 

THE  FOLLOWING  GOODS,  m.— 


227,869 
28»217 

610 

122 
2740 

122 
2294 
2959 
3857 

696 


Raccoon    •/  - 

F(«  Red;*:^^ 

„    Crds/:-'*^- 

M    Sliver  ^- 


Otter  X-^'^- 
„    Sea  -/- 
Fisher/'^- ^'  -   34 
Bear  ^-/'^^^ - 
Beaver/^j^- 


Wolf    ./.^/X 


2 
19 

so 

32 

47 
50 


5740 

34,929 

238,154 

24,533 

1383 

3777 

14,984 

13,848 

8323 

6805 


[artm/'-.'^-l'Br 
[ink    -/-^X   61 


Martin 

Mink  -/^. 
Musqnash-/;;4  33 
Black  ^^ 
JUynx  --^'^468 
Cat  Ccmnon-,  7} 
Fox  Grey  -    -    78 

74 


Kitt  .^.'' 


And  SUNDRY  FURS    - 


Skunk  -    m/»   7« 
Oppossnin*  -^-T  7e 

-     Page  77 


THK  CATALOGUK  MEASURES  6%  x  15   INCHES,  AND  THE  LOWER 
HALF.  PRINTED  IN  SMALL  TYPE  WOULD   BE   ILLEG- 
IBLE REDUCED  TO  SIZE  OF  THIS  PAGE. 

ANCIENT   CATALOGUE 

We  reproduce  in  part  the  front  page  of  the  cata- 
logue of  Messrs.  C.  M.  Lampson  &  Company's  sale  of 

270 


ANCIENT   CATALOGUE  271 

August  25-30,  1858,  which  is  interesting  on  account  of 
the  offerings,  printed  figures;  and  the  average  per  skin 
realized,  written  figures.  The  collection  of  227,cxx)  rac- 
coon will  cause  many  to  marvel,  doubly  so  when  they 
learn  that  21 1,207  raccoon  skins  were  offered  in  January 
of  the  same  year ;  while  the  number  of  skins  is  high,  the 
average  price  of  three  shillings  is  low.  The  entire  col- 
lection, 227,869  raccoon  skins,  brought  £34,024.13.2. 

We  are  indebted  to  the  estate  of  the  late  N.  F. 
Monjo,  who  was  with  G.  Franchere  in  1858,  for  the 
privilege  of  reproducing  the  catalogue  preserved  by  him 
among  carefully  kept  records  of  trade  interest. 


Movxii  Jf.  ^faeljer 

Morris  F.  Pfaelzer  was  born  in  Hemsbach,  Baden, 
on  March  2,  1871,  and  came  to  New  York,  May  10, 
1893,  a  panic  year,  and  consequently  not  a  particularly 
favorable  time  for  entering  upon  a  business  career  in  a 
strange  land;  but  it  has  always  been  true  that  he  who 
makes  his  opportunity  succeeds  more  definitely  and 
permanently  than  the  one  who  idly  and  hopefully  awaits 
the  incoming  of  the  ship  which  never  sails  because  of 
contrary  winds.  Mr.  Pfaelzer  shortly  after  his  arrival 
in  the  Metropolis  actively  engaged  in  the  raw  fur 
industry,  and  became  intently  interested  in  its  various 
phases,  and  on  February  10,  1908,  he  established  a  busi- 
ness of  his  own  under  style:  M.  F.  Pfaelzer  &  Company, 
at  3  East  Twelfth  Street,  dealing  in  raw,  dressed  and 
dyed  furs;  it  was  a  moderate  beginning,  in  a  year  of 
general  business  depression,  but  was  backed  by  ex- 
perience, energy  and  a  determination  to  succeed,  rather 
than  large  means;  the  business  did  not  grow  by  "leaps 
and  bounds,"  but  it  surely  increased  "line  upon  line," 
and  the  end  of  the  first  year  showed  satisfactory  prog- 
ress, all  conditions  considered,  and  somewhat  larger 
premises  were  taken  at  No.  6  East  Twelfth  Street. 

The  business  of  the  succeeding  years  was  marked 
by  a  fairly  steady  increase,  particularly  in  the  raw  fur 
department,  shipments  of  peltries  being  received  from 
practically  all  parts  of  the  United  States  and  Canada; 
the  furs  thus  received  were  marketed  in  New  York, 
other  manufacturing  centers,  and  in  large  part  were 
exported  to  Europe. 

On  February  i,  191 3,  Mr.  Pfaelzer  leased  his  pres- 

S7S 


J 

•4. 


'n  tiA 

Can. 
Yor. 
'ere 


iHorrisi  jf.  J^fael^er 


FUR  MERCHANTS  875 

importance  of  which  any  house  might  well  be  proud. 
The  firm  receives  raw  furs  of  every  description,  from 
choice  silver  fox  to  moderate  cost  musquash,  and  from 
the  far  north  to  southern  sections,  enabling  them  to  meet 
the  known  and  exceptional  demands  of  the  domestic 
trade  and  foreign  markets.  In  addition  to  raw  furs  the 
firm  handles  alligator  skins,  and  for  some  years  past 
have  been  the  largest  American  dealers  in  hides  of  this 
class;  their  supplies  are  secured  direct  from  first  hands 
in  the  South,  Mexico  and  Central  America. 

Adolph  Bayer  of  the  firm  died  November  20,  19 13. 
The  business  continues  without  change  of  name  or  pol- 
icy. 

HENRY  BENNET 

Henry  Bennet  has  been  actively  and  prominently 
identified  with  the  fur  trade  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlan- 
tic for  nearly  forty  years,  during  which  time  he  has  ac- 
quired a  large  fund  of  information  regarding  the  fur 
business  and  the  men,  past  and  present,  connected  with 
it.  From  January,  1 881,  to  December,  1888,  he  was  with 
Edward  J.  King's  Sons,  and  on  the  first  of  the  following 
year  engaged  in  business  on  his  own  account,  dealing  in 
raw  and  dressed  skins,  and  buying  and  selling  on  com- 
mission, at  169  Mercer  Street;  in  February,  1902,  he  re- 
moved to  140  Greene  Street,  where  he  carried  an  inter- 
esting assortment  of  American,  European,  Asiatic  and 
Turkish  skins.  One  year  later  he  removed  the  business 
to  London,  where  for  a  number  of  years  he  was  estab- 
lished as  a  fur  merchant  with  an  international  trade  in 
all  popular  peltries.  He  next  returned  to  New  York  and 
located  at  47  East  Twelfth  Street,  making  a  specialty  of 


276  FUR  MERCHANTS 

sundry  novelties  in  skins  for  which  there  was  an  in- 
creasing demand  among  local  manufacturers. 

In  December,  191 1,  he  was  appointed  American 
agent  for  Fred'k  Huth  &  Company,  London,  who  had 
perfected  arrangements  for  holding  public  sales  of  raw 
furs,  in  the  English  capital,  beginning  January,  191 2. 

E.G.  BOUGHTON 

E.  G.  Boughton  began  what  proved  to  be  an  unusual 
career  in  the  fur  business  in  1855,  and  during  his  exper- 
ience was  at  different  times  engaged  in  various  branches 
of  the  trade,  as  a  manufacturer,  dealer  in  raw  skins,  and 
a  dyer  of  furs ;  he  was  principally  active  and  best  known 
in  connection  with  the  wholesale  handling  of  raw  furs 
in  which  he  dealt  down  to  1889.  At  one  time,  not  being 
financially  able  to  monopolize  the  entire  trade,  he  made  a 
heroic  effort  to  corner  opossum;  he  made  special  offers 
for  such  skins,  sought  them  at  all  centers  of  collection, 
sharply  competed  with  other  dealers,  large  and  small, 
and  in  the  course  of  his  speculation  ran  the  price  up  to 
near  one  dollar  and  fifty  cents,  and  while  his  cash  held 
out  took  every  opossum  skin  that  was  offered.  It  was 
not  a  wise  ambition,  and  he  was  so  advised  many  times, 
and  when  opossum  declined  in  value  the  fall  was  so  great 
that  Mr.  Boughton  was  nearly  ruined — in  everything 
but  spirit. 

His  method  of  assorting  furs  was  peculiarly  his 
own;  no  one  before  or  since  ever  graded  raw  skins  in 
his  way;  it  was  said  that  he  would  take  a  lot  of  skins 
and  make  as  many  assortments  as  there  were  pelts  in  the 
collections ;  the  statement  was  slightly  exaggerated,  but 
was  sufficiently  near  to  the  truth  to  warrant  the  remark. 


FUR  MERCHANTS  277 

The  following  is  a  copy  of  an  actual  "bill  of  re- 
turns" to  a  New  York  State  shipper,  and  is  a  fair  exhibit 
of  an  assortment  made  by  Mr.  Boughton,  and  prices  pre- 
vailing at  the  time : 

I  Skunk,  black,  small $i-25 

I       "       nearly  black,  medium  size 1.30 

1  "       small  stripe,  fur  off  on  back 60 

2  "       small  stripe,  each 85 

1  "       small  stripe 80 

2  "      small  stripe,  all  over  poorish,  each 65 

I       "      small  stripe,  little  damage  on  back 65 

3  "      wide  stripe,  mostly  white,  each 30 

I  Mink,  med.  size,  very  red,  poor 35 

I       "       small,  very  red,  poor 30 

1  muskrat,  small 14 

2  Raccoon,  large  pale,  each i.cx) 

3  "  large  and  med.  size  reddish,  each 85 

3  "  large  and  med,  very  red,  each 80 

I  "  med.  and  small  pale 70 

I  "  small,  reddish 60 

I  "  extra  small  pale 55 

I  "  ex.  ex.  small  pale 40 

The  above  shipment  was  received  by  Mr.  Boughton 
on  February  26,  1886,  and  remitted  for  on  March  11, 
following. 

In  the  height  of  the  fur  seal  business  in  New  York 
Mr.  Boughton  undertook  to  dye  seal  skins,  but  did  not 
succeed  in  obtaining  the  color  in  popular  request.  He 
continued  in  business  until  1889. 


278  FUR  MERCHANTS 

WILLIAM  M.  CLAGG 

William  M.  Clagg,  raw  fur  dealer  at  LeMars,  Iowa, 
can  readily  recall  the  time  when  there  were  no  railroads 
in  that  part  of  the  country,  and  furs  were  generally  used 
as  a  medium  of  exchange ;  the  purchasing  power  of  the 
pelts  was  quite  small,  but  the  cost  of  actual  necessaries 
was  low — eggs,  for  example,  round  ten  cents  per  dozen. 
Indians  abounded  in  the  State,  and  during  the  winter 
months  made  fairly  large  catches  of  furs.  Mr.  Clagg 
with  a  cash  capital  of  four  to  five  thousand  dollars  in  a 
strong  leather  belt  concealed  under  his  garments,  was 
one  of  the  first  experts  to  visit  the  Indians  and  farmers 
scattered  over  the  trackless  prairies  to  buy  their  furs; 
the  skins,  when  collected  in  sufficient  quantity,  were 
baled  and  shipped  to  New  York. 

WILLIAM  EISENHAUER  &  COMPANY 

William  Eisenhauer  succeeded  C.  H.  Habbert  & 
Company,  in  September,  1897,  dealing  in  raw  furs  and 
ginseng  at  378-380  West  Broadway,  New  York;  he  be- 
came widely  known  throughout  the  country  as  an  able 
and  exceptionally  upright  merchant.  His  forecasts  of 
the  raw  fur  season  were  remarkably  reliable,  and  evi- 
denced a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  business.  He  died 
February  21,  1906,  aged  forty-one. 

The  business  was  resumed  at  507-509  West  Broad- 
way, June  I,  1906,  by  the  J.  S.  Lodewick  Company,  with 
capital  stock  of  $100,000,  and  was  thus  continued  under 
the  same  management  and  correct  principles  as  former- 
ly, Mr.  J.  S.  Lodewick  having  been  intimately  and  con- 
fidentially associated  with  Mr.  Eisenhauer  during  his 
business  career.     In  a  published  notice,  under  date  of 


FUR  MERCHANTS  279 

May  24,  1906,  the  Estate  of  William  Eisenhauer  stated: 
"We  take  pleasure  in  commending  the  J.  S.  Lodewick 
Company  to  the  good  will  of  our  former  shippers,  know- 
ing as  we  do  that  they  can  safely  place  in  the  successors 
to  William  Eisenhauer  &  Company  the  same  confidence 
they  had  in  the  old  firm." 

The  continued  record  of  J.  S.  Lodewick  Company 
to  date  has  fully  justified  that  confidence  in  the  concern. 

WILLIAM  H.  FLEET. 

William  H.  Fleet  when  a  young  man  took  an  aca- 
demic course  preparatory  to  entering  Aberdeen  College, 
Virginia.  In  1865  he  came  to  New  York  and  entered 
upon  his  mercantile  career  as  a  general  broker,  and  in 
that  connection  handled  raw  furs  in  quantity,  becoming 
thoroughly  familiar  with  all  essential  features  of  the 
trade;  in  due  course  he  also  made  large  purchases  of 
buflFalo  hides  for  J.  &  A  Boskowitz,  Eddie,  Carter  & 
Company,  and  other  important  houses  in  New  York. 

When  the  American  bison,  savagely  slaughtered 
solely  for  its  hide,  had  about  departed  to  join  the  red 
man  in  his  happy  hunting  grounds,  coat  makers  became 
extremely  anxious  to  find  an  article  equally  good  and 
cheap  to  take  its  place ;  the  credit  of  discovering  it  is  due 
to  William  H.  Fleet,  who  "saw  it  first"  in  an  exception- 
ally fine  dog  skin  incidentally  imported  into  New  York 
from  China  in  a  tea  laden  clipper.  The  first  lot  of  Chi- 
nese dog  skins  brought  to  New  York  at  the  instance  of 
Mr.  Fleet,  were  not  properly  dressed  in  the  homeland,  or 
refinished  in  America,  and  though  they  did  not  "smell 
to  heaven,"  they  had  a  distinct  .K9  odor,  which  at  times 
is  fairly  high,  and  consequently  were  promptly  and 


280  FUR   MERCHANTS 

scornfully  condemned  by  the  coat  manufacturers  at  St. 
Paul  and  elsewhere.  A  second  dressing  by  expert 
American  workmen  rendered  the  skins  quite  rosy,  and 
the  Celestial  substitute  for  the  American  buffalo  robe 
was  accepted,  and  has  remained  the  great  coat  skin  to 
date,  its  only  large  and  moderate  priced  rival  being  the 
Chinese  goat. 

Mr.  Fleet  later  imported  skins  direct,  and  made  a 
feature  of  Asiatic,  African  and  European  skins  of  ex- 
ceptional interest,  embracing  a  number  of  articles  not 
handled  to  any  extent  by  other  houses.  His  business 
steadily  expanded,  and  in  a  brief  period  outgrew  the 
premises  at  92  Gold  Street,  which  in  the  meanwhile  had 
ceased  to  be  in  convenient  touch  with  the  leading  fur 
firms  who  had  moved  northward ;  consequently  in  April, 
1899,  Mr.  Fleet  removed  to  121  Mercer  Street,  the  cen- 
ter of  the  fur  district  at  that  time;  in  1904  he  leased  the 
entire  building,  52  East  Thirteenth  Street,  where  he 
has  continued  to  the  present  date. 

As  the  business  increased  Mr.  Fleet  enlarged  its 
scope,  adding  thereto  the  importation  of  furs  and  skins, 
and  the  manufacture  of  ladies'  and  men's  fur  garments, 
small  furs,  robes,  rugs  and  gloves  in  all  moderate  priced 
and  costly  peltries  adapted  to  the  purpose. 

G.  GAUDIG  &  BLUM. 

The  firm  of  G.  Gaudig  &  Blum,  fur  merchants,  es- 
tablished at  Leipzig,  Germany,  in  1831,  has  made  an  en- 
viable record  for  efficiency,  mercantile  and  commercial 
enterprise  and  integrity,  meriting  the  close  study  and 
faithful  emulation  of  all  young  men  who  really  desire 
to  achieve  enduring  success  in  any  branch  of  business. 


FUR  MERCHANTS  281 

As  the  years  passed  the  firm  opened  branches  in  other 
European  cities,  and  from  1877  to  1885  was  represented 
in  the  American  trade  by  J.  B.  Chemidlin  with  head- 
quarters in  New  York.  In  1887  the  firm  opened  in  New 
York  a  branch,  fully  equipped  and  stocked,  under  their 
own  name,  with  Eugene  Wulzo  as  manager.  Mr.  Wulzo 
remained  in  charge  of  the  rapidly  developing  business 
until  the  close  of  1900,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  Carl 
Wespy,  who  conducted  the  American  aflFairs  of  the 
house  with  marked  ability  for  a  little  more  than  two 
years,  when  he  was  recalled  to  Leipzig,  where  he  died  on 
October  23,  1905,  at  the  early  age  of  thirty-eight.  Fol- 
lowing Mr.  Wespy's  withdrawal  from  New  York,  G. 
Gaudig  &  Blum  wisely,  as  time  has  shown,  committed 
the  entire  management  of  their  New  York  branch  to 
Charles  S.  Porter,  and  the  control  of  the  business  in 
America  passed,  for  the  first  time  in  its  history,  into  the 
hands  of  an  American  representative. 

ALBERT   HERSKOVITZ   &   SON 

Herskovitz  &  Roth  began  their  mercantile  career  in 
New  York  as  manufacturing  furriers  at  wholesale  in 
April,  1887,  with  factory  and  salesrooms  at  180  Mercer 
Street ;  ten  years  later  they  discontinued  manufacturing 
and  engaged  in  importing  furs  and  skins  for  the  trade 
at  large.  When  the  firm  dissolved  Albert  Herskovitz 
continued  alone  without  change  of  firm  name  until  the 
close  of  1909.  On  January  i,  19 10,  he  admitted  his  son. 
Max  Herskovitz,  since  which  date  the  business  has  been 
conducted  with  unvarying  success  under  style,  Albert 
Herskovitz  &  Son.     The  firm  additionally  does  a  large 


382  FUR   MERCHANTS 

direct  business  in  raw  furs,  and  has  an  important  branch 
at  St.  Louis. 

JARDINE,  MATHESON  &  COMPANY,  LTD. 

Jardine,  Matheson  &  Company,  Limited,  fur  im- 
porters of  Chinese  and  Japanese  skins  collected  by  their 
own  branch  houses  in  Europe  and  Asia,  have  conducted 
a  steadily  developing  business  in  New  York  since  1907. 
The  furs  brought  forward  by  the  house  have  been  in 
good  request  for  American  manufacture  owing  to  the 
steady  rise  in  prices  of  sundry  American  furs  adapted  to 
particular  purposes,  and  the  very  great  consumption  of 
fur  of  all  kinds  in  recent  years;  the  demand  remains 
strong  in  consequence  of  the  fact  that  supplies  are  still 
available,  notwithstanding  the  war.  The  imports  of  the 
house  include  dressed  dog  skin  mats,  goat  skins  and 
rugs,  kid  crosses,  lamb  skins,  China  mink  skins,  Thibet 
crosses,  and  white  coney  skins  and  crosses ;  raw  ermine, 
fox,  kid,  raccoon,  leopard,  marmot,  fitch,  kolinsky,  hare 
and  sundry  desirable  peltries.  The  entire  fur  depart- 
ment of  the  business  was  removed  in  May,  1916,  to  25 
Madison  Avenue,  for  the  convenience  of  the  trade. 

ALBERT  JAULUS. 

Albert  Jaulus  established  in  New  York  in  1879  as 
an  exporter  of  American  raw  furs;  he  has  been  from 
first  to  last  an  efficient,  conservative  and  dependable 
merchant,  and  fully  merits  the  success  crowning  his  la- 
bors. Mr.  Jaulus  has  established  excellent  American, 
Canadian  and  other  connections,  and  is  particularly  well 
informed  on  all  essential  trade  matters. 


FUR   MERCHANTS  283 


R.  MAUTNER. 


R.  Mautner,  an  exceptionally  upright  and  able  mer- 
chant, engaged  in  the  fur  manufacturing  business  in 
New  York  in  1869,  ^^^  by  great  industry  built  up  a  bus- 
iness which  extended  to  all  parts  of  the  country.  He  re- 
tired in  July,  1 90 1,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  sons  under 
style,  H.  Mautner  &  Brother,  who  have  continuously 
conducted  a  constantly  enlarging  business  in  raw, 
dressed  and  dyed  fur,  in  every  particular  extending  and 
broadening  the  excellent  reputation  for  efficiency  and  in- 
tegrity characterizing  the  business  from  the  date  of  its 
inception.  In  the  course  of  the  years  H.  Mautner  & 
Brother  have  successively  opened  branches  in  Chicago 
and  St.  Louis,  which  are  successfully  maintained.  Sam- 
uel Mautner,  of  the  firm,  died  May  4,  1916,  aged  forty- 
two. 

F.  N.  MONJO. 

Ferdind  N.  Monjo,  on  March  i,  1897,  succeeded  to 
the  fur  importing  and  exporting  business  for  twenty 
years  conducted  at  160  Mercer  Street,  New  York,  by  his 
father,  Nicolas  F.  Monjo,  who  retired  on  that  date. 
For  a  number  of  years  following  F.  N.  Monjo  continued 
actively  engaged  in  importing,  handling  a  general  selec- 
tion of  European  furs  of  known  merit  suited  to  the  vary- 
ing needs  of  manufacturers  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  Subsequently  he  devoted  his  attention  to  raw 
furs,  securing  supplies  direct  from  trappers  in  all  the 
States,  Alaska  and  Canada,  and  has  thus  been  enabled  to 
meet  the  demands  of  manufacturers  at  "ground  floor 
figures."  He  continues  to  hold  a  leading  place  in  the 
same  branch  of  the  trade,  with  offices  and  show  rooms 


284  FUR   MERCHANTS 

at  152-156  West  Twenty-fifth  Street,  New  York,  and  a 
growing  branch  at  1-3  North  Main  Street,  St.  Louis. 
He  is  actively  interested  in  every  organization  and 
movement  designed  to  improve  the  fur  trade  of  America 
both  in  its  domestic  and  foreign  relations  and  honorable 
standing. 

JAMES  L.  PROUTY. 

J.  Iv.  Prouty  established  solely  on  his  own  account 
in  the  raw  fur  business  in  New  York  in  1874;  he  was 
alert,  energetic  and  remarkably  industrious,  and  steadily 
worked  his  way  to  a  position  of  prominence  in  the  trade. 
He  dealt  direct  with  producers,  or  trappers,  and  as  the 
consequence  of  rigid  honesty  in  all  his  transactions 
gained  the  perfect  confidence  of  a  very  large  number  of 
shippers  of  peltries  scattered  over  the  trapping  sections 
of  the  United  States  and  Canada;  and  in  the  course  of 
time  built  up  a  satisfactory  and  profitable  export  trade. 
Mr.  Prouty  continued  actively  engaged  in  business  to 
the  time  of  his  death,  January  5,  1897. 

Following  this  event  his  sons,  William  L.  Prouty 
and  Almond  E.  Prouty  succeeded  to  the  business  under 
style,  J.  L.  Prouty's  Sons ;  these  successors  continue  the 
trade  upon  the  correct  principles  steadfastly  adhered  to 
by  the  founder  of  the  house. 

SAMUEL  SACHS  &  COMPANY. 

Samuel  Sachs  in  association  with  his  brother,  Louis 
Sachs,  established  in  the  fur  importing  business  in  New 
York  in  1865,  under  firm  name  of  L.  Sachs  &  Brother, 
continuing  until  December  31,  1904,  when  the  partner- 
ship was  dissolved,  Louis  Sachs  retiring,  and  Samuel 


FUR  MERCHANTS  285 

Sachs  continuing  the  business  alone,  as  Samuel  Sachs  & 
Company.  One  year  later  Louis  Sachs  re-entered  the 
firm  as  an  active  member,  and  remained  associated  with 
it  until  December  i,  1899,  when  he  withdrew  and  opened 
a  fur  business  in  his  own  name,  conducting  it  for  two 
years,  when  it  was  liquidated. 

Samuel  Sachs  maintained  the  old  business  from 
December  i,  1899,  to  April  8,  1905,  on  which  date  he 
died ;  the  business  then  passed  to  his  son,  Edward  Sachs, 
who  had  been  with  the  house  for  seven  years.  The  firm 
from  the  beginning  made  a  feature  of  skins  of  depend- 
able quality,  making  specialties  of  nutria  and  beaver; 
the  firm  was  one  of  the  first  to  import  nutria  direct  from 
South  America,  the  goods  coming  forward  in  sailing 
vessels,  the  voyage  usually  consuming  about  one  hun- 
dred days.  Chinchilla  skins,  in  small  supply  at  first, 
were  brought  to  New  York  in  the  same  way ;  one  of  the 
earliest  shipments  arrived  showing  considerable  damage 
by  water,  and  the  skins  were  sold  in  bulk  "as  are" ;  the 
buyer  hung  them  up  on  lines  strung  across  the  back  yard, 
dried  them  thoroughly,  and  sold  them  at  a  substantial 
advance. 

Mr.  Samuel  Sachs  enjoyed  the  respect  and  esteem 
of  the  entire  trade  and  as  man  and  merchant  his  career 
was  creditable  to  himself  and  the  fur  industry  of 
America. 

THORER  COMPANY,  INC. 

Theodor  Thorer,  of  Leipzig,  entered  the  importing 
fur  trade  of  New  York  in  the  eighties  of  the  last  cen- 
tury under  styl^  of  the  Transatlantic  Fur  Company,  and 
gradually  built  up  an  important  business  in  Leipzig 


286  FUR   MERCHANTS 

goods  particularly  adapted  to  the  American  market ;  the 
affairs  of  the  house  were  conducted  under  above  title 
until  April  i,  1896,  on  which  date  Paul  Albert  Thorer 
and  Carl  Praetorius  succeeded  under  style,  Thorer  & 
Praetorius,  with  desirable  warerooms  at  99  Spring 
Street.  In  April,  1903,  Edward  M.  Speer,  a  young  man 
of  high  principles  and  every  essential  qualification,  and 
who  for  some  years  had  been  prominently  connected 
with  Herskovitz  &  Roth,  accepted  the  responsible  posi- 
tion of  general  manager  of  the  American  business  of 
Thorer  &  Praetorius,  and  under  his  efficient  charge, 
maintained  to  the  present  moment,  the  business  has 
continuously  expanded,  and  for  years  past  the  house  has 
occupied  a  leading  place  among  the  progressive  fur  im- 
porting institutions  of  the  greatest  market  in  the  world. 
Thorer  &  Praetorius  dissolved  partnership  by  mutual 
consent  on  February  i,  1913,  Carl  Praetorius  retiring 
from  the  firm  and  the  fur  business,  and  Theodor  Thorer 
continuing.  In  19 14  the  business  incorporated  under 
style,  "Thorer  Company,  Inc."  In  addition  to  the  im- 
portation of  dressed  and  dyed  fur  skins,  the  company 
conducts  a  large  business  in  American  raw  furs  collected 
from  all  best  sections  of  production. 

MAX   WULFSOHN 

Max  Wulfsohn,  who  had  for  many  years  been 
identified  with  the  fur  industry  of  New  York,  established 
individually  at  63  East  Eleventh  Street  in  November, 
1904,  making  a  specialty  of  raw  and  dressed  furs 
adapted  to  the  known  needs  of  leading  manufacturers 
throughout  the  country. 

In  1907  he  associated  with  another  in  forming  an 


FUR   MERCHANTS  287 

organization,  and  then  engaged  warerooms  at  91-93 
University  Place,  to  conduct  a  similar  business,  but 
with  increased  attention  to  the  purchase  of  raw  furs 
for  domestic  consumption  and  export. 

The  company  was  dissolved  in  November,  1912,  at 
which  time  Max  Wulfsohn  secured  attractive  premises 
at  122-126  West  Twenty-sixth  Street,  where  he  inde- 
pendently engaged  in  the  raw  fur  business  under  most 
favorable  auspices ;  as  the  season  progressed  he  consum- 
mated many  large  transactions  with  leading  merchants 
at  home  and  abroad.  The  business  has  continued  to  in- 
crease in  volume,  and  undoubtedly  has  a  great  future. 

In  19 1 6  the  style  of  the  firm  was  changed  to  M. 
Wulfsohn  &  Company. 


r>ro 


iHilton  ^cfireilier 

Milton  Schreiber  was  born  in  Albany,  New  York, 
July  24,  1873.  While  as  yet  a  mere  lad  he  went  to 
New  York  City  where  he  promptly  secured  employment 
in  the  manufacturing  branch  of  the  fur  business,  to 
which  he  devoted  studious  attention,  in  due  course 
acquiring  a  comprehensive  knowledge  of  the  industry. 
In  1900  he  established  in  the  manufacture  of  popular 
furs,  and  so  continued  until  November,  1905,  when  he 
retired  from  manufacturing  and  engaged  in  the  raw 
fur  business  under  style :  Milton  Schreiber  &  Company, 
in  a  little  more  than  a  year  the  business,  under  Mr. 
Schreiber's  able  management,  outgrew  the  chosen 
premises,  28  East  Twelfth  Street,  and  in  1910  was  re- 
moved to  more  spacious  warerooms  at  130  West  Twenty- 
sixth  Street.  Mr.  Schreiber  remained  at  that  location 
until  191 5,  when  he  transferred  the  business  to  the  pres- 
ent much  larger  quarters  in  the  new  center  of  the  trade 
at  134-140  West  Twenty-ninth  Street. 

Mr.  Schreiber  is  a  remarkably  capable  judge  of  raw 
fur  qualities  and  intrinsic  values,  an  attainment  by  no 
means  common;  there  are  many  judges  of  fur,  but  the 
number  of  experts  is  comparatively  small — it  is  freely 


288 


JHilton  ^cfjreiber 


JOINED   THE   MAJORITY  291 

at  Victoria.    They  opened  a  house  in  Chicago  in  1862, 
and  in  New  York  in  1864. 

Down  to  the  close  of  1867,  while  Russian- America, 
now  Alaska,  was  owned  by  Russia,  all  furs  collected  on 
the  mainland  and  the  adjacent  islands  were  taken  over 
under  government  concessions  by  the  Russian- American 
Fur  Company,  and  no  one,  not  even  a  Russian  subject 
was  allowed  to  trade  in  furs  with  the  natives.    In  the 
spring  of  1868  a  small  trader  of  Victoria,  while  sailing 
along  the  coast  to  purchase  raw  furs  from  the  Indians, 
was  caught  in  a  terrific  storm,  carried  far  out  to  sea,  and 
finally  driven  upon  the  shore  of  Russian- America ;  know- 
ing that  it  was  unlawful  for  any  one  to  trade  with  the 
natives  he  supposed  his  vessel  would  be  seized,  and 
that  he  himself  would  be  imprisoned  or  shot,  and  was 
agreeably  surprised  to  learn  from  the  governor  that  the 
United  States  had  purchased  the  country,  and  further- 
more that  the  Russian-American  Fur  Company  was 
quite  eager  to  close  out  its  entire  collection  of  furs  at 
"unheard  of  prices" — seal,  sea  otter,  fox,  lynx,  mink  and 
other  fine  skins,  at  something  like  half  a  dollar  per  skin 
straight — counted,  not  graded.    He  invested  every  penny 
he  had,  loaded  his  vessel  with  fine  furs,  and  on  arriving 
at  home  reported  his  great  luck.    J.  &  A.  Boskowitz  at 
once  sent  vessels  to  Russian-America  and  secured  the 
surplus  stock  of  the  Russian-American  Fur  Company, 
at  like  favorable  rates,  and  cleared  a  large  cash  balance. 
This  venture  revealed  something  of  the  wonderful 
fur  wealth  of  the  new  possession  of  the  United  States, 
and  shortly  afterward  Leopold  and  Joseph  Boskowitz 
conceived  the  idea  of  forming  a  strong  organization  to 
control  the  fur  seal  and  general  fur  business  in  Alaska, 


292  JOINED   THE   MAJORITY 

and  in  due  course  organized  the  Alaska  Commercial 
Company,  which  obtained  from  the  government  a 
twenty-year  lease  of  the  fur  seal  islands,  and  still  collects 
furs  on  the  mainland.  L.  and  J.  Boskowitz  withdrew 
from  the  company  at  the  end  of  two  years. 

The  firm  of  J.  &  A.  Boskowitz  were  pioneers  in 
pelagic  sealing;  previous  to  their  entry  into  the  trade, 
the  native  sealers  operated  close  to  shore,  or  at  most  not 
more  than  a  mile  at  sea,  and  at  that  distance  only  on 
very  pleasant  days. 

Commodore  Warren  had  charge  of  the  Boskowitz 
vessels,  and  was  very  successful;  fur  seal  skins  at  that 
time  were  low  in  price,  ranging  from  six  to  ten  dollars 
each.  The  firm  undertook  the  work  of  dressing  and  dye- 
ing fur  seal  skins  in  New  York,  engaging  E.  C.  Bough- 
ton,  7  Howard  Street,  to  operate  the  branch ;  at  that  time 
the  greater  part  of  the  seal  dyeing  was  done  in  London ; 
the  London  dyers  produced  a  deep  brown  or  rich  plum 
color,  and  Boughton  could  only  dye  black,  and  as  the 
London  color  alone  was  popular,  the  Boskowitz-Bough- 
ton  venture  was  not  a  success. 

For  many  years  prior  to  1870  the  Indians  were  the 
only  buffalo  hunters  on  the  western  and  southwestern 
plains,  and  the  red  men  were  wards  of  the  government 
— their  collections  were  sold  for  them  by  government 
agents ;  these  buffalo  hides,  also  known  as  "robes,"  were 
sold  to  highest  bidder  at  stated  times,  and  for  a  con- 
siderable period  an  extremely  large  portion  of  the 
annual  catch  was  bought  by  J.  &  A.  Boskowitz  at 
Chicago.  The  offerings  of  Indian  goods  also  included 
good  sized  lots  of  raw  and  Indian  tanned  black-tail  deer, 
elk  and  antelope  skins,  for  glove  manufacturers,  and 


JOINED   THE  MAJORITY  293 

sundry  small  furs,  all  of  which  were  handled  in  quantity 
by  J.  &  A.  Boskowitz;  the  glove  stock,  augmented  by 
large  supplies  of  South  American  deer  skins,  was  mar- 
keted for  the  firm  by  O.  &  A.  DeComeau  in  New  York. 

Between  1875  and  1885,  when  greedy  white  hunters 
entered  into  competition  with  the  Indians,  upwards  of 
two  hundred  thousand  bison  were  killed  in  a  season,  and 
Indian  dressing  practically  ceased;  in  the  height  of  the 
trade  J.  &  A.  Boskowitz  leased  a  factory  in  Bridgeport, 
Connecticut,  and  turned  out  the  first  white-man  dressed 
buffalo  robes  offered  in  the  market  in  quantity ;  this  fac- 
tory was  kept  running  until  all  the  bison  were  killed.  At 
this  time  the  firm  sought  a  new  fur  world  and  found  it  in 
China,  from  which  country  they  imported  large  quanti- 
ties of  goat  and  dog  skin  plates  and  robes,  which  were 
readily  worked  up  into  warm  and  serviceable  coats  and 
sleigh  robes;  at  first  the  "China  goods"  were  very  low  in 
price,  and  excellent  profit  producers  for  the  importers; 
but  in  a  comparatively  short  time  competition,  both  in 
buying  abroad  and  selling  at  home,  moved  prices  up  in 
China  and  profits  down  in  America,  and  reduced  goats 
and  dogs  to  the  "deal  level"  which  is  of  no  particular  in- 
terest to  any  one  in  the  fur  trade.  The  consumption  of 
goat  and  dog  skins  is  still  large,  but  both  animals  con- 
tinue to  flourish  in  China  in  ample  numbers  to  meet  the 
demand. 

Ignatz  Boskowitz  died  in  Europe  in  1906. 

Leopold  Boskowitz  died  June  15,  1895. 

Joseph  Boskowitz  has  for  many  years  resided  in 
Victoria,  B.  C,  and  is  now  about  eighty  years  of  age. 

Adolph  Boskowitz  enjoys  a  lucrative  law  practice 
in  New  York. 


JEAN    B.    CHEMIDLIN 

Jean  Baptiste  Chemidlin  was  born  in  Imling, 
France,  in  1834,  and  came  to  New  York  sixteen  years 
later ;  shortly  after  his  arrival  he  was  employed  by  Pierre 
Chouteau  &  Company,  fur  merchants,  with  whom  he  re- 
mained until  the  firm  retired  from  business  in  December, 
1857.  He  then  joined  with  Gabriel  Franchere  in  form- 
ing the  firm  of  G.  Franchere  &  Company,  continuing  un- 
til 1869,  when  he  became  associated  with  N.  F.  Monjo 
under  style,  J.  B.  Chemidlin  &  Company.  In  1874  the 
firm  was  changed  to  Oberndorfer,  Chemidlin  &  Com- 
pany, and  so  remained  until  1877,  ^^  which  year  Mr. 
Chemidlin  was  appointed  American  agent  for  G.  Gaudig 
&  Blum,  which  position  he  held  from  1877  to  1885. 

Mr.  Chemidlin  died  September  17,  1888. 

294 


JOINED    THE   MAJORITY  295 

LOUIS   BRIEFNER 

Louis  Briefner  began  his  highly  honorable  and  suc- 
cessful career  in  the  fur  business  in  New  York  in  1861, 
and  during  his  active  life  in  the  trade,  covering  more 
than  half  a  century,  he  conducted  at  different  times  all 
branches  of  the  business,  manufacturing,  importing,  ex- 
porting, and  dealing  in  raw  furs  purchased  direct  from 
trappers  and  collectors  throughout  the  country.  As  the 
years  progressed  he  took  his  sons  successively  into 
partnership,  and  from  the  beginning  the  business  was 
faultlessly  conducted,  and  Mr.  Briefner  was  freely  ac- 
corded the  highest  esteem  of  all  shippers  and  competitors 
in  the  trade  at  large. 

Louis  Briefner  died  May  12,  19 16,  aged  seventy-six. 

JOHN  K.  CILLEY— JOSEPH  L.  CILLEY 

John  K.  Cilley  began  his  successful  mercantile 
career  in  New  York  City  in  the  general  commission 
business,  but  very  early  relinquished  the  produce  depart- 
ment, which  he  found  rather  distasteful,  and  in  associa- 
tion with  Washington  Belt,  under  style  Belt  &  Cilley,  de- 
voted his  attention  to  raw  furs  and  wool,  in  which  branch 
of  trade  he  attained  a  commanding  position,  and  was 
favorably  known  in  America  and  Europe. 

In  1 88 1  the  firm  was  dissolved,  and  Mr.  Cilley  con- 
tinued the  business  as  J.  K.  Cilley  &  Company  with 
marked  success  until  1893,  when  he  was  elected  presi- 
dent of  the  Ninth  National  Bank  of  New  York.  In  con- 
sequence of  this  change  in  his  affairs  Mr.  Cilley  with- 
drew from  mercantile  life,  and  the  fur  business  he  had 
so  long  conducted  was  taken  over  by  Joseph  L.  Cilley, 


296  JOINED   THE   MAJORITY 

his  brother,  in  partnership  with  N.  D.  Marshall.  On 
May  I,  1894,  owing  to  the  death  of  Mr.  Marshall,  the 
firm  of  Cilley  &  Marshall  was  dissolved,  and  Joseph  L. 
Cilley  continued  the  business  individually  until  May, 
1898,  when  it  was  liquidated. 

John  K.  Cilley  faithfully  served  the  Ninth  National 
Bank  as  its  president  until  1900,  when  he  retired. 

John  K.  Cilley  was  born  April  13,  1840;  died  De- 
cember 5,  19 1 6. 

Joseph  L.  Cilley  was  born  December  22,  1842 ;  died 
May  29,  191 1. 

OLIVIER   DE   COMEAU 

Olivier  de  Comeau  entered  the  fur  business  as  a 
general  broker  in  1858,  giving  particular  attention  to  im- 
portations of  cut  fur  for  felting.  From  March  31,  1876, 
to  March  31,  1879,  he  was  a  member  of  P.  Robinson  & 
Company,  cutters  of  hatters'  furs,  Danbury,  Connecti- 
cut; the  firm  was  dissolved  by  limitation  on  the  last 
named  date,  and  Mr.  de  Comeau  resumed  his  brokerage 
business,  handling  Scotch,  English,  German  and  Aus- 
tralian hare  and  rabbit  skins.  North  American  and  Cen- 
tral American  deer  skins,  and  sundry  furs;  he  at  one 
time  attempted  to  corner  deer  skins  with  disastrous  re- 
sults, but  began  life  anew,  and  still  remains  in  the  field — 
the  oldest  member  of  the  trade  daily  in  active  business. 

GABRIEL   FRANCHERE 

Gabriel  Franchere  was  a  lover  of  the  woods,  hills 
and  valleys,  and  all  out  doors,  and  owing  to  that  fact 
chose  the  life  of  fur  trader  at  a  time,  early  in  the  nine- 
teenth century,  when  the  great  west  was  a  wilderness. 


JOINED   THE   MAJORITY  297 

Indians  on  the  warpath  were  more  easily  met  than 
avoided,  and  the  only  habitations  were  within  the  forts 
built  by  pioneer  fur  traders  as  centers  of  collection. 

Mr.  Franchere,  in  company  with  other  venturesome 
traders  and  enlisted  helpers,  traveled  the  wild  country 
for  weeks  and  months  at  a  time  bartering  furs  with 
friendly  Indians,  and  dodging  those  otherwise  disposed, 
with  good  results,  his  collections  generally  being  large 
and  valuable.  He  was  often  pursued  by  bands  of 
savages,  good  hunters  and  trappers  everyone,  but  who 
greatly  preferred  a  hairy  forelock,  Indian  or  white  man 
grown,  to  a  furry  fox  pelt;  during  these  stalking  ex- 
periences Mr.  Franchere  had  many  narrow  escapes,  but 
he  enjoyed  the  excitement  more  than  he  dreaded  the 
danger,  and  consequently  continued  his  fur  quest  in  the 
open  with  ever  increasing  success. 

He  gradually  extended  his  operations,  constantly 
westward,  until  he  entered  that  section  of  the  country 
now  known  as  Oregon,  traded  along  the  beautiful  Co- 
lumbia River,  and  brought  up  at  Astoria. 

Astoria  at  that  time  was  a  settlement  and  a  trading 
post  to  which  Indian  hunters  and  trappers  brought  many 
bales  of  fine  furs  each  season,  exchanging  them  for  pro- 
visions and  sundry  supplies ;  vessels  owned  by  the  com- 
pany visited  Astoria  twice  a  year  with  supplies,  taking 
on  the  return  voyage  all  furs  collected  to  date  of  sailing. 

In  the  forties  Mr.  Franchere  settled  in  the  fur  busi- 
ness in  New  York  in  association  with  Ramsey  Crooks, 
as  a  member  of  the  American  Fur  Company,  and  finally 
as  head  of  the  firm  of  G.  Franchere  &  Company,  which 
continued  from  1857  to  the  close  of  1868. 


298  JOINED    THE    MAJORITY 

ALFRED  FRASER 

Alfred  Eraser,  a  man  of  irreproachable  character, 
marked  intellectual  attainments,  and  exceptional  com- 
mercial ability,  devoted  his  life  to  the  fur  trade,  not 
merely  as  one  who  sought  its  pecuniary  rewards,  but  to 
definitely  develop  it  to  the  extreme  of  possibility,  and  in- 
sure it  a  leading  place  among  mercantile  and  commercial 
enterprises  held  in  enduring  respect  in  the  markets  of 
the  world. 

Mr.  Fraser  began  his  business  career  as  a  young 
man  in  the  universally  known  and  honored  house  of 
C.  M.  Lampson  &  Company,  London,  and  by  efficient 
attention  to  his  duties  steadily  advanced  to  higher  and 
increasingly  important  positions  of  trust,  and  in  1878 
was  admitted  into  partnership.  Following  this  event 
Mr.  Fraser,  who  had  previously  made  annual  visits  to 
America  in  connection  with  the  business,  came  to  New 
York  as  permanent  American  representative  of  his  firm, 
and  was  entirely  successful  in  conducting  the  aflfairs  of 
the  house,  and  instrumental  in  augmenting  the  business 
of  the  firm. 

Mr.  Fraser  was  well  known  to  all  raw  fur  exporters 
in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  enjoyed  the  confidence 
and  esteem  of  all  American  fur  merchants,  and  his  re- 
tirement in  191 1  from  active  participation  in  the  business 
was  sincerely  regretted. 

Mr.  Fraser  died  November  10,  191 5,  aged  seventy- 
six. 


JOINED   THE   MAJORITY  299 

C.    H.    HABBERT 

C.  H.  Habbert  was  actively  engaged  in  the  raw  fur 
business  in  New  York  for  a  quarter  of  a  century ;  he  was 
highly  respected  by  all  who  knew  him,  and  his  intimate 
and  casual  acquaintances  embraced  a  vast  number  of  fur 
merchants,  leading  manufacturers  and  raw  fur  shippers 
in  both  America  and  Europe. 

He  entered  the  trade  with  Belt  &  Butler,  who  an- 
nually handled  thousands  of  skins  shipped  to  them  by 
individuals  and  firms  in  all  the  states  and  Canada. 

Later  he  established  in  the  same  branch  of  trade  on 
his  own  account,  and  was  noticeably  successful. 

Mr.  Habbert  was  an  unusually  profound  student  of 
economic  conditions,  and  his  annual  forecasts  of  raw  fur 
prospects  for  the  immediately  succeeding  season  were 
read  in  the  trade  at  large  with  extreme  interest. 

Owing  to  impaired  health  Mr.  Habbert  retired 
from  mercantile  pursuits  in  1896,  subsequently  taking 
up  his  residence  near  Frankford,  Germany. 

CHARLES   A.   HERPICH 

Charles  A.  Herpich  began  a  fur  importing  business 
in  New  York  in  1853,  with  Leipzig  branch;  he  was  ex- 
tremely industrious,  well  informed,  and  very  progres- 
sive, and  under  his  tireless  management  the  business 
grew  rapidly,  and  was  extended  to  all  large  cities  in  the 
states.  In  addition  to  foreign  goods,  he  purchased  large 
lots  of  raw  furs  from  collectors,  both  for  American  con- 
sumption and  export;  he  also  dealt  heavily  in  buflfalo 
robes,  and  in  1875  purchased  the  entire  Fort  Benton  coF- 
lection  of  forty  thousand  robes,  and  other  smaller  lots ; 


800  JOINED   THE   MAJORITY 

additional  purchases  were  made  the  following  year, 
rather  more  than  trade  conditions  warranted. 

In  1877  he  became  financially  embarrassed,  but  in 
a  short  time  effected  a  settlement  and  continued,  but  with 
lessened  output.  February,  1895,  the  business  was  in- 
corporated under  style,  Charles  A.  Herpich  Company. 

On  June  18,  1878,  in  consequence  of  great  mental 
depression  due  to  his  reverses,  he  committed  suicide  by 
shooting  at  his  place  of  residence  in  New  Brighton, 
Staten  Island. 

HENRY   KRAUS 

Henry  Kraus,  born  in  Germany  June  7,  1844,  came 
to  America  when  a  young  man,  and  on  account  of  his 
knowledge  of  the  business  readily  found  employment  in 
the  fur  trade  in  New  York.  In  1875  ^^  established  an 
importing  and  exporting  business,  handling  raw,  dressed 
and  dyed  furs ;  for  a  time  he  was  associated  with  Joseph 
Steiner. 

Mr.  Kraus  was  an  honorable  and  universally  re- 
spected merchant.  He  died  May  23,  191 3,  at  Bad  Kis- 
sengen,  Germany,  where  he  was  sojourning  on  account 
of  failing  health. 

EDWARD  J.   KING 

Edward  J.  King  founded  in  New  York  in  1839  an 
importing  business  in  furs  and  skins,  which  in  later 
years  occupied  a  commanding  position  in  the  trade ;  he 
was  conservative,  alert  and  remarkably  successful.  Mr. 
King  was  exceptionally  well  informed  in  all  matters  in 
any  way  affecting  the  trade;  rigidly  exact  regarding 
every  transaction;  he  possessed  a  wonderful  memory 


JOINED   THE   MAJORITY  801 

for  details,  and  could  readily  give  dates,  assortments 
and  prices  covering  public  sales  for  extraordinary 
periods.    He  died  June  30,  1885. 

Following  his  death  the  business  was  taken  over 
by  his  sons,  under  style,  Edward  J.  King's  Sons,  and  was 
continued  until  January  i,  1900,  when  it  was  liquidated. 

WILLIAM    MACNAUGHTAN 

William  Macnaughtan  conducted  a  fur  commission 
business  in  New  York  from  1849  to  1879,  and  was  widely 
known  in  the  United  States  and  Europe  as  a  merchant  of 
extreme  ability  and  integrity,  an  expert  judge  of  furs, 
and  a  careful  student  of  trade  conditions. 

Mr.  Macnaughtan  was  never  charged  with  an  im- 
proper transaction,  or  giving  a  promise  that  was  not  kept 
to  the  letter. 

He  was  born  in  Paisley,  Scotland,  November  8, 
1820;  twenty-eight  years  later  he  came  to  New  York, 
and  very  soon  after  his  arrival  was  employed  by  John 
C.  Lord,  a  leading  furrier  of  that  period. 

Rather  more  than  a  year  later  he  accepted  an  im- 
portant post  with  Ramsey  Crooks,  formerly  associated 
with  John  Jacob  Astor,  and  a  partner  in  some  of  his 
chief  enterprises,  particularly  the  American  Fur  Com- 
pany, the  Astoria  venture,  and  the  Pacific  Fur  Company. 

On  the  death  of  Mr.  Crooks  the  business  passed  in 
succession  to  Mr.  Macnaughtan,  who  continued  it  with 
extreme  credit  to  himself  and  the  American  trade. 

Mr.  Macnaughtan  died  February  6,  1879. 


NICOLAS   F.    MONJO 

Nicolas  F.  Monjo  was  for  an  exceptionally  ex- 
tended period  one  of  the  best  and  most  favorably  known 
fur  merchants  in  New  York;  he  was  not  simply  known 
in  the  Metropolis,  or  by  name  and  reputation  generally, 
but  was  personally  known  to  all  important  fur  dealers 
from  coast  to  coast  in  the  United  States,  the  most  re- 
mote settled  points  in  Canada,  and  the  great  cities  and 
markets  of  Europe,  by  all  of  whom  he  was  highly  re- 
spected and  esteemed  on  account  of  his  manifest  integ- 
rity, respect  for  his  word,  and  his  exceptionally  complete 

302 


JOINED   THE   MAJORITY  303 

and  reliable  knowledge  of  every  detail  of  the  business. 
He  was  a  very  great  traveler,  visited  Europe  many 
times,  crossed  the  American  continent  frequently,  and 
made  numerous  visits  to  the  fur  centers  of  Canada,  in- 
cluding the  new  as  well  as  the  older  Provinces.  His 
travels  were  continued  to  very  near  the  termination  of 
his  remarkably  active  business  life. 

Mr.  Monjo  began  his  career  in  the  fur  trade  in 
1859,  ^"  which  year  he  entered  the  house  of  G.  Franchere 
&  Company,  with  whom  he  remained  for  a  period  of 
ten  years,  and  by  close  application  acquired  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  business  and  men  conducting  it  at  home 
and  abroad. 

In  1869  he  became  associated  with  Jean  B.  Chemid- 
lin  under  style :  J.  B.  Chemidlin  &  Company,  and  so  con- 
tinued until  1874,  when  he  withdrew  from  the  firm  and 
established  in  business  individually  with  gratifying 
success. 

In  December,  1904,  Mr.  Monjo  was  appointed 
American  Agent  for  A.  &  W.  Nesbitt,  of  London,  who 
had  perfected  plans  for  including  North  American  pel- 
tries in  their  established  public  sales  of  Australasian  and 
European  skins,  on  and  after  January  i,  1905.  Mr. 
Monjo  retained  this  important  relation  to  the  English 
house  with  marked  ability  and  the  satisfaction  of  all  in 
interest  up  to  the  time  of  his  death,  which  occurred,  re- 
gretted by  all  who  knew  him,  May  24,  19 14. 


The  photograph  of  Mr.  Monjo  was  taken  in  i87( 
the  latest  date  at  which  he  faced  the  camera. 


304  JOINED   THE   MAJORITY 

H.   L.   PENCE 

H.  L.  Pence,  in  association  with  J.  V.  Clawson,  en- 
gaged in  the  manufacture  of  ladies'  furs  in  New  York 
in  1873,  and  continued  thus  occupied  until  1878,  in  which 
year  the  partnership  was  dissolved,  and  succeeded,  in 
manufacturing,  by  Clawson  &  Biglow,  who  continued 
for  nine  years,  when  Mr.  Biglow  withdrew.  Mr.  Claw- 
son conducted  the  business  alone  to  the  time  of  his  death, 
May  25,  1890. 

Following  the  dissolution  of  the  first  named  firm 
in  August,  1878,  H.  L.  Pence  established  independently 
in  the  raw  fur  business  in  New  York,  as  a  dealer  and 
exporter,  and  had  a  satisfactory  career  in  his  second- 
choice  branch  in  fur  merchandising. 

In  1898  the  business  was  incorporated  as  The  H.  L. 
Pence  Company,  followed  by  the  retirement  of  Mr. 
Pence  from  personal  participation  in  mercantile  affairs. 

RUDOLPH  SCHOVERUNG 

Rudolph  Schoverling,  a  careful,  conservative,  con- 
scientious merchant  of  the  old  school,  with  a  thorough 
German  business  training,  took  over  an  importing  fur 
and  skin  business  in  1885  which  had  been  established 
briefly  prior  to  that  date. 

Mr.  Schoverling  conducted  the  business  with 
marked  credit  to  himself,  but  with  varying  success,  gen- 
eral trade  conditions  being  adverse  during  a  consider- 
able part  of  the  time.  His  integrity  was  unquestioned, 
and  he  was  held  in  the  highest  esteem  in  the  trade  to  the 
time  of  his  retirement  in  1893. 

He  died  May  7,  1908,  in  the  seventy-third  year 
of  his  age. 


JOINED   THE   MAJORITY  305 

Mr.  Schoverling  did  not  make  the  fur  trade  greater 
than  it  was  when  he  entered  it,  an  achievement  exceed- 
ing his  financial  means,  but  in  honesty  and  correct  busi- 
ness methods  he  set  an  example  considerably  above  the 
average,  and  every  way  worthy  of  emulation. 

JOSEPH   ULLMANN 

Joseph  Ullman  was  born  at  Pfafstadt,  Alsace, 
March  23,  1826;  at  the  age  of  twenty-five  he  left  his 
native  land  for  America,  making  New  Orleans  his  des- 
tination; he  remained  at  New  Orleans  for  some  time, 
then  removed  to  St.  Louis,  and  later  settled  at  St.  Paul, 
which  was  then  just  putting  forth  the  promise  of  becom- 
ing a  city — in  time. 

In  1854,  up  to  which  time  he  had  been  engaged  in 
another  branch  of  business,  he  made  his  initial  purchase 
of  raw  furs,  which  netted  him  such  satisfactory  returns 
that  he  at  once  disposed  of  his  other  interests  and,  from 
that  date  to  the  time  of  his  death,  devoted  his  entire 
energies  to  the  fur  trade,  eventually  employing  upwards 
of  forty  traveling  buyers,  who  thoroughly  covered  the 
northwest  and  southward  to  Texas  in  the  collection  of 
raw  furs,  hides  and  sheep  pelts.  In  1866  he  established 
a  branch  at  Chicago,  and  took  up  his  residence  in  that 
city;  about  a  year  later  he  opened  a  selling  agency  in 
New  York,  which  in  due  course  became  the  main  Amer- 
ican house.  Mr.  Ullmann  also  established  branches  in 
Canada  to  facilitate  collections  and  shipments.  In  1873 
warerooms  and  offices  were  leased  at  Leipzig,  Germany, 
to  which  Mr.  Ullmann  devoted  close  attention,  and  he 
later  carried  into  effect  a  cherished  plan  for  holding 
public  sales  of  American  raw  furs  in  Leipzig;  about 
eighteen  hundred  lots,  comprising  58,950  skunk,  466,- 


306  JOINED   THE  MAJORITY 

350  brown  and  3,250  black  muskrat,  6,900  red  fox,  43,- 
380  raccoon,  and  sundry  skins,  were  catalogued  in  his 
initial  sale  held  September  26  to  29,  1875.  The  imme- 
diate effect  of  the  sale  was  extremely  gratifying  to  the 
Leipzig  trade,  as  selling  thus  in  open  market  fixed  a 
standard  of  values  for  all  articles  offered,  a  condition  not 
previously  prevailing.  Mr.  UUmann  subsequently  estab- 
lished permanent  branches  in  London  and  Paris. 

The  several  establishments  in  Germany,  France, 
England  and  the  United  States,  except  at  Chicago,  con- 
tinue in  operation  to  date,  and  have  been,  and  are,  a 
power  in  the  betterment  of  the  fur  trade  both  nationally 
and  internationally. 

Mr.  Joseph  Ullmann  died  at  Leipzig,  September  3, 
1906,  aged  eighty-one,  in  the  full  enjoyment  of  many 
days  and  universal  esteem. 

LEOPOLD   WEIL 

Leopold  Weil,  an  exceptionally  manly  man  endowed 
with  many  surpassingly  excellent  qualities  of  mind  and 
heart,  entered  the  fur  business  at  Chicago  near  the  close 
of  1872  as  confidential  assistant  to  Joseph  Ullmann,  and 
so  continued  until  1876,  in  which  year  he  became  identi- 
fied with  the  management  of  the  New  York  house  of  the 
same  firm. 

He  subsequently  withdrew  and  engaged  in  the  fur 
importing  business  in  association  with  Henry  Bressler, 
following  whose  death  in  1880  he  organized  the  firm  of 
Leopold  Weil  &  Brothers,  the  associate  members  being 
Dr.  Isaac  Weil  and  Julius  Weil. 

The  venture  was  successful  from  the  beginning, 
and  during  the  entire  period  of  its  existence,  some  twelve 


JOINED   THE   MAJORITY  807 

years,  was  conducted  in  accordance  with  wholly  correct 
mercantile  methods,  and  unswerving  integrity,  gaining 
a  reputation  which  any  merchant  of  that  day  or  this 
might  very  well  covet  as  among  the  best  things  of  time. 

Leopold  Weil  was  a  man  whom  friends,  acquaint- 
ances and  commercial  competitors  "delighted  to  honor," 
for  he  honored  himself,  and  to  the  limit  of  his  powers 
sought  to  make  the  trade  of  his  choice  honorable. 

Leopold  Weil  died  February  6,  1903,  in  the  forty- 
ninth  year  of  his  age. 

Julius  Weil,  junior  member  of  the  firm  at  the  time 
it  was  organized,  died  August  4,  1908. 

Dr.  Isaac  Weil,  liquidated  the  business  after  the 
death  of  the  senior  member  of  the  firm,  but  remained 
in  the  trade  until  December  31,  191 6,  when  he  retired. 


iWanufacturing;  Jf urrierg 

Some  of  the  Prominent  Wholesale  Manufactur- 
ers OF  New  York  of  Highest  Repute  Who  Are 
Well  Known  at  Home  and  Abroad,  and  a 
Number   of   Earlier   Date   Who   in 
Their  Day  Helped  to  Make  the 
Fur  Trade  of  America  What 
It  Should  Be 


M.   M.    BACKUS 

Mancer  M.  Backus  added  materially  to  the  high 
character  of  the  fur  trade  during  his  entire  connection 
with  it,  being  prominent  in  every  movement  designed 
to  maintain  the  business  on  an  elevated  plane. 

He  was  a  native  of  Utica,  N.  Y.,  a  graduate  of 
Columbia  College,  and  for  some  time  subsequent  to  his 
graduation  was  editor  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  Jour- 
nal. In  1844  ^^>  with  N.  B.  Wilbur,  formed  the  firm  of 
N.  B.  Wilbur  &  Company,  to  conduct  a  wholesale  busi- 
ness in  hats  and  furs,  with  salesrooms  at  85  Maiden 
Lane,  New  York  City.  Four  years  later  the  firm  was 
changed  to  Backus,  Osborne  &  Company,  in  1857  to 
Backus,  Nichols  &  Company,  and  in  1859  the  business 
was  succeeded  to  by  M.  M.  Backus,  who  conducted 
it  alone  until  October,  1874,  when  he  took  into  partner- 
ship his  son,  Henry  L.  Backus,  and  continued  as  M.  M. 
Backus  &  Company,  until  the  business  was  discontinued 
in  1885. 

M.  M.  Backus  died  April  23,  1887. 

308 


MANUFACTURING   FURRIERS  809 

EDWARD   E.   BALDWIN 

For  more  than  half  a  century  E.  E.  Baldwin  has 
been  actively  engaged  in  the  fur  business  in  New  York 
City,  and  he  still  holds  a  leading  place  in  the  trade. 

He  began  his  mercantile  career  in  1864,  buying 
raw  furs  direct  from  trappers,  and  manufacturing  the 
product  for  general  wholesale  trade.  In  his  boyhood 
days  he  trapped  fur-bearers  successfully,  and  when  the 
marshes  in  northern  New  Jersey  were  under  flood  in  the 
spring  he  brought  in  many  fine  muskrats  with  a  small 
rifle. 

In  1875  he  admitted  into  partnership  N.  J.  Bishop- 
rick  and  N.  P.  Kenyon,  the  firm  being  Baldwin,  Bishop- 
rick  &  Company,  three  years  later  he  purchased  the  in- 
terests of  both  associates,  and  took  into  partnership  his 
brother  Bleecker  Baldwin  and  W.  P.  Dacosta  under 
style  E.  E.  Baldwin  &  Brother  &  Company,  and  so  con- 
tinued until  the  death  of  B.  Baldwin,  seven  years  later, 
when  E.  E.  Baldwin  bought  Mr.  Dacosta's  interest,  and 
continued  alone,  as  at  present,  and  since  1902  at  34-36 
East  Tenth  Street. 

The  business  embraces  raw  fur  skins,  dressed  and 
dyed  furs,  importing  and  exporting,  and  manufacturing. 

Mr.  Baldwin  has  made  it  an  invariable  rule  to 
manufacture  only  strictly  reliable  goods,  perfect  alike 
in  material  and  workmanship;  his  success  has  been 
measurably  due  to  his  progressive  methods,  recognized 
reliability,  and  his  practice  of  buying  everything  at  "first 
hand"  in  thorough  knowledge  of  values  and  trade  con- 
ditions. 

Bleecker  Baldwin,  who  entered  the  firm  of  E.  E.  & 
B.  Baldwin  January  i,  1882,  died  November  13,  1889. 


310  MANUFACTURING   FURRIERS 

BENJAMIN   BLOSVEREN 

Benjamin  Blosveren,  born  in  Kalish,  Prussian  Po- 
land, in  1836,  came  to  New  York  when  thirty-two  years 
of  age,  and  for  about  nine  years  served  as  an  excep- 
tionally efficient  furrier  with  the  prominent  house  of 
Harris  &  Russak.  In  1877  ^^  engaged  in  business  on 
his  own  account  manufacturing  fine  seal  caps.  He  died 
November  28,  1893;  highly  respected  by  all  who  knew 
him.  The  business  was  continued  by  his  sons,  Moss  and 
Baron  Blosveren,  under  style  B.  Blosveren's  Sons,  who 
have  made  a  grand  record  as  progressive  manufacturers ; 
the  productions  now  include  seal  and  fur  caps,  men's 
fur  and  fur-lined  coats  of  best  quality,  and  attractions  of 
more  than  ordinary  value  in  ladies'  fashionable  furs. 

The  firm,  since  February  i,  1914,  has  occupied  very 
spacious  quarters  at  36-38  West  Thirty-seventh  Street. 

F.  BOOSS  &  BROTHER 

Frederick  Booss  &  Brother  was  for  a  little  more 
than  half  a  century  one  of  the  firms  that  imparted  char- 
acter to  the  fur  trade  in  America,  and  if  all  others  had 
wrought  as  wisely  and  well  the  fur  business  would  have 
occupied  the  first  place  in  the  category  of  mercantile 
and  commercial  bodies. 

Frederick  and  George  Booss  came  to  New  York 
from  Germany  in  1853  and  established  in  fur  manufac- 
turing as  F.  Booss  &  Brother  in  the  down  town  district ; 
in  1864  they  purchased  the  plot  and  building  at  449 
Broadway,  where  the  business  was  continued  to  the 
date  of  the  death  of  Frederick  Booss,  December  4,  1901. 
George  Booss  died  September,  1898.     The  firm  was 


MANUFACTURING   FURRIERS  811 

awarded  a  Gold  Medal  at  the  Centennial  Exposition, 
Philadelphia,  1876,  and  another  at  the  Paris  Exposition, 
1878. 

KARL  FUCHS 

Karl  Fuchs  has  been  a  prominent  fur  manufacturer 
in  the  leading  fur  manufacturing  market  in  the  world. 
New  York,  for  many  years ;  at  the  outset  he  determined 
to  produce  only  reliable  goods — full  value  to  every  buyer 
— and  in  holding  to  his  purpose  made  remarkable  prog- 
ress from  season  to  season.  In  every  department  of  hu- 
man effort  the  specialist  is  at  the  top ;  for  years  past  Mr. 
Fuchs,  though  making  up  other  furs,  has  made  a  spe- 
cialty of  lynx,  and  has  achieved  extreme  success  in  the 
effective  development  of  that  excellent  fur.  The  busi- 
ness was  incorporated  in  191 5,  and  has  since  been  con- 
ducted at  130-132  West  Twenty-fifth  Street  under  style, 
Karl  Fuchs,  Inc. 

DAVID  GREENFIELD 

David  Greenfield  began  the  manufacture  of  furs  in 
New  York  in  1852,  and  built  up  an  extensive  trade  with 
leading  firms  throughout  the  United  States.  He  was  in 
the  highest  and  best  sense  an  honorable  merchant,  whose 
word  was  never  broken.  He  retired  from  business  in 
1897,  and  died  September  9,  1904,  in  the  seventy-ninth 
year  of  his  age. 


?|«S0  f .  iHisscIio 


Herman  Mischo,  an  efficient  furrier,  established  in 
1867  in  the  manufacture  of  high  class  seal  and  fur  caps 
at  wholesale,  with  factory  and  salesroom  at  76  Bowery, 
New  York,  a  central  location  at  that  time;  a  little  later 
he  removed  to  49  Crosby  Street,  then  to  438  Broome 
Street,  and  subsequently  to  20  Bond  Street.  He  con- 
ducted the  business  with  steadily  increasing  success  for 
a  period  of  twenty-two  years,  and  became  widely  known 
as  a  proficient  manufacturer  of  thoroughly  reliable 
goods,  and  a  man  eminently  worthy  of  the  highest 
respect.  Mr.  Mischo  remained  actively  engaged  in  busi- 
ness until  the  beginning  of  1889,  when  he  withdrew  to 
enjoy  a  well  earned  rest  of  a  little  more  than  eight  years 
— he  died  March  28,  1897. 

Mr.  Hugo  J.  Mischo,  dating  from  1879,  worked  for 
Mr.  Herman  Mischo  for  a  number  of  years,  during 
which  time  he  acquired  a  detailed  knowledge  of  the 
business,  and  extreme  ability  as  a  practical  furrier, 
attainments  of  incalculable  importance  to  a  manufac- 
turer of  furs  of  quality. 

On  February  i,  1889,  following  the  retirement  of 
Herman  Mischo,  the  business  was  succeeded  to  by  Hugo 
J.  Mischo  and  Jacob  Simmons  under  style,  Simmons  & 
Mischo,  and  continued  at  the  above  location. 

A  little  later  the  firm  name  was  changed  to  Simons, 
Mischo  &  Company,  and  ladies'  fur  garments  and  small 

312 


*-!»^i^m^^^^s 


#Upi  J 


MANUFACTURING   FURRIERS  815 

CHRISTIAN  G.  GUNTHER 

Christian  G.  Gunther  was  born  in  Saxony  in  1795, 
and  as  he  grew  to  manhood  he  acquired  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  manufacture  of  furs,  and  familiarized 
himself  with  business  methods  prevailing  in  the  trade 
abroad.  When  he  was  twenty-three  years  of  age  he 
came  to  New  York,  and  shortly  after  his  arrival  was 
employed  by  John  G.  Wendell,  brother-in-law  of  John 
Jacob  Astor,  and  leading  metropolitan  furrier,  57  Maid- 
en Lane.  In  1820  Mr.  Gunther  established  a  fur  busi- 
ness of  his  own,  manufacturing  high  class  goods ;  he  was 
an  extremely  careful  and  conscientious  merchant,  and 
his  industry  and  integrity  readily  won  for  him  a  leading 
place  in  the  fur  business,  not  only  of  New  York,  but 
America,  a  position  continuously  occupied  to  date — with 
the  further  distinction  of  being  the  oldest  established  fur 
business  continuously  conducted  under  the  same  name  in 
the  United  States.  In  due  course  Mr.  Gunther  received 
his  sons  into  partnership,  as  C.  G.  Gunther's  Sons. 

Mr.  Franklin  L.  Gunther  was  an  active  member  of 
the  firm  for  many  years,  but  withdrew,  discontinuing 
business,  some  years  ago. 

Mr.  Ernest  R.  Gunther  was  a  member  of  the  firm 
for  some  time,  but  severed  his  connection  with  the 
house  several  years  ago,  and  has  not  since  been  identified 
with  the  fur  business. 

During  all  the  years  the  house  has  given  attention 
to  the  production  of  high  class  furs  exclusively,  the 
choicest  sables,  black  foxes,  sea  otter,  Shetland  and 
Alaska  fur  seals,  Russian  ermine  and  our  best  Ameri- 
can peltries;  the  quality  mark,  however,  has  not  been 
limited  to  the  materials  of  manufacture,  but  has  found 


316  MANUFACTURING   FURRIERS 

very  definite  expression  in  the  artistic  character  of  the 
models  and  perfection  in  workmanship.  Gunther  furs 
were  awarded  the  Gold  Medal  at  the  Exposition  Univer- 
sal, Paris,  1867;  ^"^  ^  Gold  Medal,  several  Diplomas  and 
fifteen  Highest  Awards  at  the  Columbian  Exposition, 
Chicago,  1893. 

The  firm  has  always  been  exceedingly  public  spir- 
ited, and  has  contributed  liberally  to  every  worthy  cause ; 
many  instances  might  be  recorded,  but  one  chacteristic 
of  all  is  noted  in  their  contribution  of  ten  thousand  dol- 
lars to  the  Johnstown  Relief  Fund. 

Christian  G.  Gunther,  founder  of  the  house,  died 
October  30,  1868,  aged  seventy-three. 

C.  G.  Gunther's  Sons  was  incorporated  in  April, 
191 3  under  the  laws  of  the  State  of  New  York,  as  suc- 
cessors to  the  New  Jersey  corporation  of  the  same  name. 
Directors:  Thomas  Kearney,  Moses  Ely  aftd  R.  L. 
Logan. 

Louis  F.  Georger  was  a  member  of  the  firm  for 
many  years,  and  was  very  well  known  and  highly 
esteemed  in  the  trade;  he  died  May  14,  1913. 

John  Charles  Gunther,  an  active  and  influential 
member  of  the  firm  for  forty-five  years,  retired  May  i, 
1869.    He  died  March  6,  1876,  aged  fifty-three. 

William  Henry  Gunther,  oldest  son  of  Christian  G. 
Gunther,  head  of  the  house  for  an  extended  period,  died 
September  21,  1877,  in  the  sixty-second  year  of  his  age. 

Francis  Frederick  Gunther,  last  representative  of 
the  second  generation  of  the  celebrated  family,  died 
December  3,  1895,  aged  sixty- two. 

William  Henry  Gunther,  at  the  time  senior  mem- 
ber of  the  firm,  died  February  15,  1901 ;  born  in  New 
York,  185 1. 


MANUFACTURING  FURRIERS  317 

LEOPOLD  HAAS 
Leopold  Haas,  whose  long  career  in  the  fur  manu- 
facturing business  was  marked  by  the  strictest  integrity, 
came  to  New  York  from  Austria-Hungary  in  1883,  and 
from  that  time  until  his  death,  May  22,  19 16,  conducted 
a  high  class  manufacturing  and  retail  fur  business.  He 
was  married  in  1851,  and  celebrated  his  golden  wed- 
ding March  10,  1901,  upon  which  occasion  he  was  the 
recipient  of  many  evidences  of  esteem  and  respect  from 
leading  members  of  the  trade. 

HARRIS  &  RUSSAK 

Henry  Harris  and  Benjamin  Russak,  two  thor- 
oughly alert  men  of  affairs,  united  in  forming  the  firm 
of  Harris  &  Russak  in  1850,  and  were  so  associated  in 
business  until  death  separated  them,  a  period  of  nearly 
thirty  years.  On  forming  the  partnership  the  firm 
opened  a  retail  hat  and  fur  store  at  326  Grand  Street, 
where  by  untiring  industry  they  built  up  a  sound  and 
progressive  business;  for  many  years  the  store  was  a 
"landmark,"  and  became  as  time  advanced  one  of  the 
best  known  hat  and  fur  establishments  in  that  part  of 
the  city.  As  their  business  increased  they  opened  a  sec- 
ond store  at  Eighth  Avenue  and  Twenty-second  Street, 
and  a  little  later  a  third  at  228  Bowery ;  all  of  their  ven- 
tures prospered  from  the  outset. 

In  May,  1864,  the  firm  materially  enlarged  its  oper- 
ations, engaging  in  the  manufacture  of  furs  at  whole- 
sale, making  a  feature  of  popular  furs,  thoroughly  de- 
pendable goods,  to  meet  the  requirements  of  leading 
retail  merchants  in  New  York  and  other  large  cities ;  at 


818  MANUFACTURING   FURRIERS 

that  time  manufactured  furs  were  carried  chiefly  by- 
fashionable  hatters. 

When  seal  skin  became  popular,  very  shortly  aftor 
the  purchase  of  Alaska  by  the  United  States,  Harris  & 
Russak  were  among  the  first  furriers  to  appreciate  the 
real  merits  of  the  article,  and  to  manufacture  ladies* 
seal  sacques  in  exceptionally  large  number ;  in  the  seven- 
ties important  dry  goods  houses  throughout  the  country 
gradually  evinced  an  interest  in  manufactured  furs,  and 
in  succession  opened  increasingly  attractive  fur  depart- 
ments, and  many  of  the  best  of  these  built  their  success 
upon  the  popular  priced  seal  garments  manufactured  by 
Harris  &  Russak.  The  firm  occupied  throughout  its 
career  a  position  of  highest  honor  in  the  fur  trade  of  the 
metropolis ;  and  their  reputation  as  efficient  and  upright 
merchants  extended  to  all  parts  of  the  United  States. 

Henry  Harris  died  June  12,  1879,  in  the  fifty-sev- 
enth year  of  his  age. 

Benjamin  Russak  died  January  29,  1892,  in  the 
sixty-fourth  year  of  his  age. 

The  business  was  discontinued  February  i,  1893. 

HERX,  AMES  &  RAU 

F.  Theodore  Herx  and  Charles  Rau  established  as 
manufacturing  furriers  in  New  York  in  1891,  and  so 
continued  until  February  i,  1893,  when  they  admitted 
William  B.  Ames,  under  style  Herx,  Ames  &  Rau.  The 
firm  ranked  among  the  leading  manufacturers  of  high 
class  furs,  was  eminently  successful,  honorable,  and 
highly  esteemed  in  the  local  trade  and  throughout  the 
country.  In  rather  rapid  succession  death  claimed  the 
entire  membership  of  the  house. 


MANUFACTURING   FURRIERS   .  819 

F.  Theodore  Herx  died  in  March,  19 14.  Charles 
Rau  died  May  27,  19 14,  and  William  B.  Ames  joined 
the  great  majority  March  20,  191 6. 

WILLIAM  JACKMAN 

William  Jackman  was  born  in  London,  England,  in 
1829,  and  when  a  young  man  came  to  the  United  States 
and  shortly  afterward,  under  the  lure  of  "growing  up 
with  the  West,"  went  to  Cleveland,  Ohio,  where,  in  i860, 
he  established  a  wholesale  fur  manufacturing  business, 
which  steadily  increased  in  volume  from  year  to  year 
quite  to  the  limit  of  his  hopes — really  outgrew  the  foun- 
dation, and  became  big  enough  to  transplant  a  branch 
in  New  York,  which  in  turn  has  developed  into  a  house 
of  first  rank.  The  expansion  was  wholly  due  to  the 
painstaking  industry,  strict  integrity  and  unswerving 
fidelity  of  the  early  resolve  to  give  full  value  in  every 
transaction. 

In  August,  1889,  Mr.  Jackman  received  in  partner- 
ship his  sons,  Edward  F.  and  Charles  A.  Jackman,  the 
firm  becoming  William  Jackman  &  Sons,  and  so  con- 
tinued until  April  7,  1899,  when  William  Jackman  died, 
and  the  style  of  the  firm,  in  consequence,  was  changed 
to  William  Jackman's  Sons. 


SToftn  3aus?its! 


Living  members  of  the  fur  trade  who  knew  him, 
either  intimately  or  but  slightly,  all  agree  that  in  their 
day  and  generation  John  Ruszits  occupied  the  leading 
place  among  the  fur  merchants  of  America ;  was  a  man 
worthy  of  honor  among  honorable  men;  one  who  was 
not  born  great,  did  not  have  greatness  thrust  upon  him, 
but  achieved  it,  and  one  who  made  for  the  fur  business 
a  meritorious  record  which  endures;  and  for  himself, 
a  name  which  lives  on. 

John  Ruszits  is  remembered,  not  for  the  remark- 
able things  he  said,  for  he  was  a  man  of  few  words; 
nor  for  his  personal  attainments,  for  he  neither  sought 
nor  desired  rank  or  station;  but  he  was  esteemed  and 
is  remembered  for  what  he  did,  and  the  ways  in  which 
it  was  done.  Not  that  he  accomplished  mighty  things, 
but  that  he  began,  continued  and  finished  common- 
place tasks,  the  every-day  duties  incident  to  his  busi- 
ness, with  the  sustained  interest,  efficiency  and  fidelity 
to  details  which  master  minds  are  supposed  to  lavish 
upon  greater  things,  even  the  greatest. 

It  is  an  open  question  whether  he  worked  the  more 
for  himself — the  highest  attainable  reputation  as  a 
manufacturer — or  his  clients,  and  through  them  in- 
dividual consumers.  His  glory  was  in  his  work,  and  it 
was  so  fruitful  of  enduring  values,  that  others  emulate 
the  record — and,  "he  being  dead  yet  speaketh;"  his 
name  lives  on  in  his  work. 

820 


y 


a  meritorious  re- 


ness.  whh  ih 


'jt   1:  tiiem  it. 


s.  - 


3ol)n  3Sin^}it^ 


JOHN   RUSZITS  821 

John  Ruszits  was  born  in  Baja,  Hungary,  in  1817; 
when  yet  a  young  man  he  went  to  Germany,  where  he 
spent  about  ten  years  in  acquiring  extreme  proficiency 
as  a  practical  furrier,  graduating  as  a  master  workman, 
fully  equipped  for  service  or  leadership.  In  185 1  he 
came  to  New  York,  and  at  once  engaged  in  business  as 
a  manufacturer  of  fine  furs,  productions  particularly 
worthy  of  being  classed  as  "fine"  on  account  of  evident 
superiority  in  workmanship. 

In  one  respect  he  did  not  differ  from  the  majority 
— he  began  at  the  bottom  round,  with  small  means,  in 
modest  premises,  and  by  untiring  industry  steadily  ad- 
vanced, not  by  "leaps  and  bounds,"  but  just  a  day's 
march  forward  each  day.  He  did  not  come  to  America 
to  make  a  fortune  in  a  year,  or  a  decade ;  he  came  with 
very  little  "ready  money,"  but  an  unlimited  fund  of  con- 
fidence in  his  ability  to  make  a  living,  with  the  one 
thing  added  which  makes  a  life — contentment.  He  made 
more;  an  untarnished  record  for  integrity,  truth,  and 
all  that  makes  for  success — and  success;  it  was  a  per- 
sonal triumph.  He  studied  the  economies  of  the  busi- 
ness even  to  the  last;  in  order  to  get  the  "right  goods  at 
the  right  prices"  he  purchased  raw  furs  direct  from 
the  field;  conducted  a  general  trade  in  dressed  and 
dyed  skins — staples  and  novelties — carefully  purchased 
abroad;  and  also  handled  various  specialties  required 
in  the  trade — if  he  had  any  hobby,  it  found  expression 
in  his  desire  to  be  able  to  fill  off-hand  any  order  that 
might  come  to  him. 

In  his  career  of  nearly  forty  years  in  the  fur  trade 
of  America  he  amassed  a  fortune ;  the  dollars  bequeathed 
to  others,  we  believe,  have  made  for  themselves  wings 


822  JOHN   RUSZITS  "^ 

and  flown  away,  but  the  example  of  the  one  who 
gathered  them  is  still  a  power  in  the  fur  trade. 

Mr.  Ruszits  died  October  i8,  1890.  As  an  excep- 
tional mark  of  respect  to  his  memory  all  fur  merchants 
in  New  York  closed  their  places  of  business  during  the 
hour  of  the  funeral  on  October  21. 

A  meeting  of  the  trade,  October  20,  adopted  the 
following : 

RESOLUTIONS. 

Whereas,  It  has  pleased  Almighty  God  in  His  infinite 
wisdom  to  take  from  among  us,  through  death,  our  late  busi- 
ness friend  and  associate,  John  Ruszits,  for  whom  we  all  had 
the  higfhest  regard,  esteem,  and  respect ;  therefore,  be  it 

Resolved,  That  we,  the  members  of  the  fur  trade,  in 
meeting  this  day  assembled,  desire  to  bear  testimony  to  his 
high  honor,  uniform  kindness,  courtesy  and  integrity.  He 
enjoyed  the  highest  respect  of  all  with  whom  he  had  business 
relations,  and  in  his  death  we  feel  that  the  trade,  and  the  com- 
munity at  large,  have  sustained  an  irreparable  loss  which 
words  fail  to  express. 

Resolved,  That  we  extend  our  sincere  sympathy  and 
condolence  to  his  bereaved  widow  in  this  her  hour  of  trial ; 
but  whose  loss  is  greatly  assuaged  by  the  untarnished  name 
he  leaves  behind  him. 

Resolved,  That  these  resolutions  be  suitably  engrossed 
and  presented  to  his  widow. 


MANUFACTURING   FURRIERS  323 

ABRAHAM  AND  JAMES  JACOBSON 

Abraham  Jacobson,  then  a  young  man  of  exception- 
al enterprise  and  ability,  began  the  manufacture  of  fur 
novelties  for  the  trade  in  1874;  his  productions  met  with 
immediate  success  because  of  originality  and  readily  dis- 
cernible superiority  in  general  workmanship.     In  1878 
his  brother,  James  Jacobson,  accepted  an  engagement 
with  the  same  house,  and  later  went  with  another  firm 
in  which  Abraham  Jacobson  had  previously  become  a 
partner.  February  i,  1891,  Abraham  and  James  formed 
a    new    firm,    under    style,    A.    Jacobson    &    Brother, 
leasing  premises  at  109  Mercer  Street,  where  they  made 
a  specialty  of  the  manufacture  of  high  grade  novelties 
and  ornaments,  under  very  favorable  conditions;  they 
were  bright  and  energetic  young  men  of  high  character, 
were  well  known,  and  their  productions  were  approved 
by  the  best  houses  in  the  trade  throughout  the  country. 
For  some  time  they  devoted  particular  attention  to  the 
manufacture  of  first  quality  fur  and  braid  ornaments 
for  furriers,  and  a  choice  selection  of  small  animal 
heads,  in  natural  finish,  for  which  there  existed  at  the 
time   an   excellent  demand   in  the   fur   and   millinery 
trades.    In  1893  they  removed  to  160  Mercer  Street  in 
order  to  secure  more  factory  space,  and  there  they  in- 
creased the  number  of  their  manufactures,  adding  the 
production  of  entirely  new  things  in  fine  head  scarfs, 
celluloid  skulls,  braids  and  sundry  small  specialties  of 
extreme  utility  in  the  fur  business ;  somewhat  later  they 
made  a  feature  of  larger  life-size  skulls  for  rugs  fin- 
ished with  mounted  heads. 

On  February  i,  1897,  in  consequence  of  the  very 
considerable  development  of  their  business  they  secured 


824  MANUFACTURING  FURRIERS 

greatly  enlarged  premises  at  11-13  West  Houston 
Street,  where  they  materially  increased  their  output  of 
reliable  goods,  which  were  quite  universally  recognized 
as  "Standard"  in  the  fur  trade. 

On  February  i,  1904,  the  firm  removed  to  their 
present  location,  160  Fifth  Avenue,  where  they  have 
materially  enlarged  their  business,  adding  thereto  the 
manufacture  of  furs  of  highest  worth,  including  Rus- 
sian sable  garments  and  sets,  silver  fox,  Alaska  seal, 
and  other  rich  peltries  wrought  into  artistic  designs, 
which  readily  command  the  appreciation  of  the  most  dis- 
criminating consumer. 

ALBERT  JAECKEL 

Albert  Jaeckel  has  for  many  years  occupied  a 
prominent  and  leading  position  in  the  "ancient  and 
honorable"  fur  business  in  the  City  of  New  York,  but 
his  reputation  as  an  extremely  proficient  furrier  en- 
dowed with  more  than  ordinary  good  taste,  is  not  con- 
fined to  the  Metropolis,  for  productions  carrying  his 
name  have  long  held  a  high  place  in  favor  in  all  the  great 
cities  throughout  the  country  where  courtly  furs  are 
worn. 

He  began  his  career  in  the  American  fur  trade, 
which  owes  much  to  his  genius  and  love  of  the  beautiful, 
in  1877,  at  12  East  Eighth  Street,  manufacturing  furs 
at  wholesale,  producing  only  high  class  goods ;  not  neces- 
sarily the  most  costly  furs  exclusively  but  definitely  fine 
skins,  the  best  in  their  class,  made  up  by  skilled  operators 
who  clearly  understood  that  each  finished  article  would 
be  subjected  to  his  searching  scrutiny,  and  would  not  be 
allowed  to  pass  to  the  shipping  department  if  falling  in 


MANUFACTURING   FURRIERS  826 

any  degree  below  his  fixed  standard  of  perfection  in 
manufacture. 

This  rule  has  continuously  prevailed  in  both  the 
wholesale  and  retail  departments,  and  largely  accounts 
for  the  extreme  favor  accorded  to  Jaeckel  furs  by 
appreciative  consumers  in  exclusive  circles. 

In  1886  he  secured  larger  premises  at  1 1  East  Nine- 
teenth Street,  where  he  considerably  extended  the  busi- 
ness and  his  reputation  as  an  efficient  manufacturer. 

A  partner  was  taken  in  1895,  and  under  style,  A. 
Jaeckel  &  Company,  the  business  was  removed  to  37 
Union  Square  West,  and  a  retail  department  was  added ; 
two  years  later,  February  i,  1907,  Mr.  Jaeckel  leased  the 
very  fine  building,  now  occupied,  at  384  Fifth  Avenue, 
and  has  since  conducted  a  leading  retail  business  in  furs 
of  highest  quality. 

In  August,  1907,  the  business  was  incorporated  as 
A.  Jaeckel  &  Company,  the  incorporators  being:  Albert 
Jaeckel,  president;  Lewis  M.  Borden,  vice-president;  L. 
A.  Hamilton,  secretary  and  treasurer. 

HUGO   JAECKEL,    Sr. 

Hugo  Jaeckel  has  been  a  prominent  fur  merchant 
and  manufacturer  in  the  American  Metropolis  for  nearly 
forty  years;  he  began  close  to  the  lowest  round  of  the 
ladder,  and  by  unwearied  industry  and  purposeful  per- 
sistence won  his  way  to  the  topmost  round.  He  entered 
upon  his  business  career  in  New  York  in  July,  1878,  as 
a  member  of  the  firm  of  Asch  &  Jaeckel,  manufacturing 
ladies'  furs  at  wholesale;  a  year  later  the  firm  was 
changed  to  Duncan,  Asch  &  Jaeckel,  and  later,  on  the 
death  of  Mr.  Duncan,  the  original  title  was  resumed, 
and  the  business  was  removed  to  11- 13  West  Houston 


326  MANUFACTURING  FURRIERS 

Street,  and  later,  January  15,  1892,  still  larger  premises 
were  secured,  the  firm  leasing  and  occupying  the  entire 
building  at  20-22  Waverly  Place ;  six  years  later  the  firm 
secured  the  commodious  building  at  2i7  Union  Square, 
and  in  April,  1908,  removed  to  16-20  West  Thirty- 
second  Street.  On  February  i,  1905,  the  firm  was  suc- 
ceeded by  H.  Jaeckel  &  Sons,  the  members  being :  Hugo 
Jaeckel,  Sr.,  Hugo  Jaeckel,  Jr.,  and  Richard  Jaeckel. 

KAYE   &   EINSTEIN 

Kaye  &  Einstein,  favorably  known  manufacturers 
of  furs  of  highest  merit,  established  in  business  in  1888, 
and  from  that  date  forward  have  occupied  an  enviable 
position  in  the  trade,  not  alone  in  the  Empire  City,  but 
as  definitely  from  ocean  to  ocean,  and  in  all  important 
markets  and  fashion  centers  of  the  old  world.  Their 
styles  readily  win  their  way  in  consequence  of  their  dis- 
tinctive character,  originality  and  artistic  excellence. 
All  transactions,  whether  sales  to  or  purchases  from 
them,  have  proven  satisfactory  to  all  concerned.  Their 
productions  include  ladies'  furs,  men's  fur  and  fur- 
lined  coats,  and  complete  selections  of  auto  fur  clothing. 

The  business  of  Kaye  &  Einstein  was  incorporated 
in  January,  1908,  with  two  hundred  thousand  dollars 
capital,  by  Alexander  Heilbronner,  Charles  Kaye  and 
Raphael  C.  Korn. 

Moses  Einstein,  of  the  firm,  died  June  12,  1902. 

Alexander  Heilbronner  died  September  25,  19 16. 

KAUFMAN   &   OBERLEDER 

Kaufman  &  Oberleder,  wholesale  manufacturing 
furriers,  have  built  up  a  business  which  is  not  only  a 


MANUFACTURING   FURRIERS  327 

monument  to  their  own  enterprize,  but  a  credit  to  New 
York;  they  set  out  to  achieve  success  upon  the  correct 
basis,  quality  of  materials  and  excellence  in  workman- 
ship— and  have  not  missed  the  mark  by  a  hairs  breadth ; 
the  phenomenal  growth  of  the  business  tells  the  story 
better  than  it  can  be  narrated  in  a  multiplicity  of  words. 
Kaufman  &  Oberleder  incorporated  in  February, 
191 5.  Frederick  Kaufman,  president;  William  Ober- 
leder, vice-president;  George  J.  Baruch,  secretary; 
Morris  H.  Oberleder,  treasurer. 

JOHN   KONVALINKA 

John  Konvalinka  conducted  a  manufacturing  and 
retail  fur  business  at  38  Maiden  Lane,  New  York,  for 
forty-four  years,  and  was  one  of  the  best  known  furriers 
in  the  city.  He  was  born  in  a  village  near  Prague, 
Bohemia,  in  1821,  and  came  to  New  York  in  1849;  ^^ 
began  business  on  his  own  account  in  1852,  and  con- 
tinued to  the  time  of  his  death,  June  3,  1896. 

LOWERRE   &   COMPANY 

Lowerre  &  Company,  for  "years  and  years"  at  83 
Mercer  Street,  enjoy  the  distinction  of  being  the  oldest 
established  house  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  fur 
robes  in  New  York.  They  began  in  the  early  seventies 
of  the  past  century,  and  were  especially  important 
manufacturers  of  buffalo  robes,  and  later  Chinese  goat 
robes  in  all  colors. 

Thomas  H.  Lowerre,  of  the  firm,  died  November  9, 
1902,  aged  sixty. 


828  MANUFACTURING  FURRIERS 

SIMON  REINEMAN— ALBERT  REINEMAN 
Simon  Reineman  in  1852  established  in  the  whole- 
sale hat  and  fur  business  in  the  Metropolis,  as  Reine- 
man, Gimbel  &  Company,  later  as  Stern,  Gage  &  Com- 
pany, and  subsequently  under  style  Foltz  &  Reineman, 
manufacturing  furs,  and  so  continued  to  1885,  from 
which  date  Simon  Reineman  conducted  the  business 
alone,  achieving  very  considerable  success,  and  becom- 
ing widely  known  in  the  trade.  On  January  i,  1892,  he 
retired  and  was  succeeded  by  Albert  Reineman,  who 
today  enjoys  a  reputation  for  ability  and  integrity,  as  a 
manufacturer  of  high-class  furs,  second  to  none.  Simon 
Reineman  died  at  Ulm,  Germany,  July  17,  1905,  aged 
sixty-seven. 

REVILLON   FRfeRES 

Revillon  Freres,  foremost  fur  merchants  and  manu- 
facturers of  Paris,  whose  business  dates  back  to  1723, 
have  for  nearly  forty  years  unostentatiously  exerted  a 
beneficial  influence  upon  the  fur  business  of  America  as 
the  inescapable  effect  of  the  impressively  exalted  char- 
acter of  the  house,  their  irreproachable  methods,  and 
the  extreme  excellence  of  the  business  in  all  its  details. 
Every  department  of  the  great  house  is  conducted  in  the 
most  progressive  up-to-date  manner,  and  in  the  exercise 
of  the  fullest  knowledge  of  commercial  conditions  and 
mercantile  possibilities  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  These 
statements  apply  not  only  to  the  original  foundation  at 
Paris,  but  as  emphatically  to  the  branches  established  in 
succession  at  London,  Montreal,  New  York,  Leipzig  and 
points  of  minor  magnitude,  not  the  least  of  which  have 
their  beginning  at  comparatively  recent  dates  in  the  new 
cities  and  personally  planted  trading  posts  in  the  most 


MANUFACTURING  FURRIERS  829 

modern  provinces  and  far  northern  wilds  of  Canada. 

The  New  York  branch  of  Revillon  Freres  was 
opened  in  1880  at  731  Broadway,  in  charge  of  an  Amer- 
ican representative,  with  an  excellent  selection  of  their 
superior  fur  seal  skins  in  the  beautiful  French  dye,  and 
other  choice  furs  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  ultra 
fashionable  consumers. 

In  1890  the  business  was  confided  to  the  efficient 
management  of  Mr.  P.  A.  Majot,  and  was  confined  to 
trade  at  wholesale;  six  years  later,  in  order  to  secure 
much  greater  manufacturing  facilities  the  business  was 
removed  to  13-15  West  Twenty-eighth  Street,  with  Mr. 
Andre  Jave  in  charge. 

The  progress  of  the  house  was  rapid,  necessitating 
another  change  of  location,  and  in  January,  1899,  the 
firm  leased  the  entire  building  19  West  Thirty-fourth 
Street  and  30-32  West  Thirty-fifth  Street,  and  very 
materially  enlarged  the  business  by  opening  one  of  the 
finest  retail  departments  in  the  United  States — their 
lines  at  the  time  included  manufacturing,  dressed  and 
dyed  fur  skins  at  wholesale,  raw  fur  purchasing  at  first 
hand,  importing,  exporting,  retailing  and  cold  storage; 
really  every  branch  of  the  trade,  and  profoundly  touch- 
ing every  point,  place  and  fur  interest  of  real  worth. 

The  business  was  incorporated  at  Paris  in  1904. 

The  house  has  important  branches  in  London  and 
Montreal,  and  purchasing  agencies  in  many  parts  of  the 
world. 

Jean  Albert  Revillon  died  November  26,  1887. 

Leon  Revillon  died  January  31,  191 5. 

Albert  Revillon  died  at  the  front  in  the  great  war, 
October,  191 5. 

Anatole  Revillon  died  January  30,  191 6. 


830  MANUFACTURING  FURRIERS 

A.    P.    ROCKWELL 

A.  P.  Rockwell  was  for  many  years  well  known  in 
the  fur  business  of  New  York;  he  was  for  some  time  a 
member  of  the  firm  of  Treadwell  &  Company,  from 
which  connection  he  withdrew  in  1879,  and  the  follow- 
ing year  opened  a  fine  fur  store  at  731  Broadway,  with 
a  full  line  of  fur  seal  skins  and  model  garments  from  the 
celebrated  house  of  Revillon  Freres,  Paris. 

He  so  continued  to  1890,  when  he  became  manager 
of  The  Rockwell  Fur  Company,  which  remained  in 
business  only  a  short  time ;  subsequently  he  occupied  an 
important  position  with  the  John  Ruszits  Fur  Company. 

Mr.  Rockwell  died  June  i,  1903;  born  at  Guilford, 
N.  Y.,  March  4,  1840. 

SIMON   SCHWERSENSKI 

Simon  Schwersenski  was  for  forty  years  one  of  the 
best  known  and  most  highly  respected  fur  manufacturers 
in  New  York;  he  was  born  in  Germany  in  1849,  and 
came  to  New  York  when  a  mere  lad ;  in  a  short  time  he 
found  employment  in  the  fur  business  and  kept  indus- 
triously at  work  until  he  mastered  the  trade.  In  the 
spring  of  1873  he  established  a  fur  manufacturing  busi- 
ness of  his  own,  and  gradually  built  up  a  splendid  trade 
at  wholesale. 

Mr.  Schwersenski  was  actively  identified  with  a 
number  of  charitable  institutions.    He  died  August  23, 

1915- 

CHRISTOPHER   C.   SHAYNE 

Christopher  C.  Shayne  was  born  at  Galway,  N.  Y., 
September  29,  1844,  and  continued  to  reside  in  the  old 


MANUFACTURING  FURRIERS  331 

homestead  until  he  became  of  age.  In  1865  he  went  to 
Cincinnati,  where  he  engaged  in  the  fur  manufacturing 
business;  seven  years  later  he  removed  to  New  York 
and  continued  to  be  identified  with  the  fur  trade  in 
various  ways.  In  1879  he  established  a  small  commis- 
sion business  in  manufactured  furs  at  103  Prince  Street, 
and  by  hard  work,  perseverance  and  exceptionally  liberal 
advertising  built  up  a  profitable  manufacturing  and  re- 
tail business  in  popular  furs.  His  business  grew  rapidly, 
and  in  a  few  years  he  erected  and  occupied  a  fine  build- 
ing on  Forty-second  Street,  west  of  Sixth  Avenue,  upon 
which  his  name  is  still  displayed. 

Mr.  Shayne  died  February  21,  1906. 

LOUIS  ZECHIEL 

Louis  Zechiel,  who  was  born  in  a  village  in  the 
Grand  Duchy  of  Baden,  Germany,  in  July,  1826,  de- 
voted some  six  years  to  learning  the  furriers*  trade,  and 
when  twenty-two  years  of  age  came  to  New  York,  and 
after  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  local  business  methods 
established  in  fur  manufacturing. 

From  1850  to  1875  he  made  up  ladies'  furs  in  mod- 
erate priced  goods  with  marked  success;  in  the  latter 
year  he  ceased  making  small  furs,  and  engaged  largely 
in  the  manufacture  of  buflFalo,  Chinese  dog  and  goat 
robes. 

He  was  prominently  identified  with  various  socie- 
ties, including  F.  and  A.  M.,  Arion  Society  and  other 
organizations  of  Brooklyn. 

He  died  August  25,  1895. 


PHIUP   WEINBERG 


PHILIP  WEINBERG;  LOUIS  CLARK,  JR. 

Philip  Weinberg,  whose  useful  life  exceeded  the 
allotted  span  of  three  score  and  ten  years,  was  a  man  of 
unblemished  character,  one  whose  word  none  ever 
doubted,  and  a  fur  merchant  of  much  more  than  average 
ability.  None  was  more  orthodox  in  his  religion  than 
he;  and  yet  he  was  not  more  orthodox  in  his  religion 
than  in  his  business;  his  was  a  life  of  faithful  prayer, 
and  practiced  righteousness. 

More  successful  furriers  there  may  have  been ;  but 
not  better  men. 

Mr.  Weinberg  began  his  career  as  a  wholesale  fur 
manufacturer  in  New  York  in  1855,  locating  in  William 
Street,  the  center  of  the  trade  at  that  time.  He  devoted 
his  attention  to  the  manufacture  of  strictly  dependable 
goods,  that  is,  good  throughout,  the  best  in  fur,  f urnish- 

832 


MANUFACTURING   FURRIERS  883 

ings,  and  workmanship  consistent  with  the  selling  price. 
In  those  days  the  quality  of  the  fur  was  considered  more 
important  than  the  "style"  in  which  it  was  made  up; 
the  consumer  wanted  a  "fine  fur,"  not  a  flashy  lining — 
the  real  thing,  not  bargains ;  furs  were  not  so  generally 
worn,  nor  so  common  as  at  present. 

Mr.  Weinberg  was  fully  conversant  with  condi- 
tions, but  was  not  content  to  merely  meet  them  by  pro- 
ducing something  "just  as  good"  as  those  of  the  first 
line;  he  sought,  rather,  to  make  the  quality  standard, 
and  in  carrying  out  his  purpose  won  his  way  into  the 
confidence  and  sustained  custom  of  the  best  houses  of 
the  period,  and  scored  permanent  success. 

His  business  steadily  increased,  and  as  the  years 
rolled  by  larger  and  larger  premises  were  occupied  in 
abiding  prosperity. 

Louis  Clark,  Jr.,  became  associated,  as  full  partner, 
with  Mr.  Weinberg  in  1867,  under  style  Ph.  Weinberg 
&  Company,  and  for  twenty-two  years,  until  its  dissolu- 
tion, the  firm  occupied  a  leading  position  in  the  fur  trade 
of  New  York,  and  was  held  in  the  highest  esteem  at 
home  and  abroad. 

Mr.  Louis  Clark,  Jr.,  was  upright,  just,  self  respect- 
ing and  respected  by  all  who  knew  him  socially  or  in 
business ;  a  man  "true  as  steel,"  whom  to  know  was  an 
honor,  and  whose  early  death  caused  profound  regret. 

Philip  Weinberg  died  June  12,  1907,  aged  seventy- 
six. 

Louis  Clark,  Jr.,  died  August  20,  1907,  in  the  fifty- 
fifth  year  of  his  age. 


884  MANUFACTURING  FURRIERS 

M.   PRENTICE   WHITCOMB 

M.  Prentice  Whitcomb  occupied  a  prominent  posi- 
tion as  a  fur  manufacturer  in  New  York  from  1854  to 
1868;  for  the  first  three  years  he  was  in  partnership 
with  George  C.  Treadwell,  and  from  January,  1857,  to 
May,  1868,  alone;  he  retired  in  the  latter  year.  Mr. 
Whitcomb  died  at  his  home  in  Springfield,  Vermont, 
December  8,  1879,  aged  fifty-four. 

MUTUAL   PROTECTIVE  FUR   MANUFAC- 
TURERS'  ASSOCIATION,   Inc. 

An  association  with  the  above  title,  the  latest  co- 
operative movement  among  manufacturing  furriers  in 
New  York  City,  was  organized  September-October, 
191 7;  the  purposes  comprehend  all  mercantile  matters  in 
any  way  aflfecting  the  interests  of  the  members,  atten- 
tion centering  importantly  upon  credits. 

First  officers  chosen  are:  Julius  Spirer,  president; 
Emil  Goodman,  vice-president;  Joseph  Moscoff,  secre- 
tary ;  Dana  Flaxman,  treasurer. 

General  offices  are  at  1269  Broadway,  New  York. 


SKUNK 


Reofox 


PED  FOX  —  Walking. 


RED  FOX  —  Running- 


V    ^    •«    ^    *^    ^ 

OPOSSUM,  WAUONft-FwMTtaMxuSMuypocs  NOT  SNOW 


Fur  bearers  in  passing  over  muddy  banks  of 
streams,  dusty  roads,  lake  shores  and  in  the  uncrusted 
snow  mark  the  surfaces  with  their  shapely  feet;  these 
tracks  reveal  to  experienced  hunters  and  trappers  the 
nature  of  the  animal  and  the  direction  pursued.  The 
fur-bearers  leave  a  different  trail  when  walking  and 
running,  but  the  single  foot  prints  are  the  same  under  all 
conditions. 


835 


Joseph  M.  Bossak,  born  in  New  York  City,  No- 
vember, 1 89 1,  is  a  meritorius  representative  of  the 
younger  generation  of  fur  merchants  who  by  their 
general  activities  evidence  their  determination  to  fully 
maintain  all  that  is  best  in  the  traditions  of  the  trade, 
and  to  develop  to  the  utmost  the  lessons  of  time  and 
experience,  presaging  progress  toward  higher  and 
grander  achievements  in  the  department  of  mercantile 
endeavor  to  which  they  devote  their  lives.  It  is  a 
gratifying  condition  that  such  is  the  character,  in  the 
main,  of  the  young  men  engaging  in  leading  positions  in 
the  fur  trade  in  these  later  years. 

Mr.  Bossak  was  graduated  from  the  High  School 
of  Commerce  in  19 10,  and  in  the  autumn  of  that  year 
entered  upon  his  career  in  the  fur  business  in  the  employ 
of  Albert  Herskovits  &  Son,  giving  close  and  studious 
attention  to  the  raw  fur  department  of  the  business ;  he 
remained  with  the  firm  one  year,  and  then  established 
in  his  own  interest  in  association  with  George  N.  Struck, 
under  style :  Struck  &  Bossak,  dealing  in  raw  furs  and 
ginseng,  with  warerooms  at  131  West  Twenty-fourth 
Street. 

In  1913,  Mr.  Struck  withdrew,  and  Joseph  M.  Bos- 
sak, receiving  his  younger  brother,  Arnold  H.  Bossak, 
into  partnership,  continued,  incorporating  the  business 
under  title:  Struck  &  Bossak,  Inc.  The  trade  of  the 
house,  extending  to  all  parts  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada,  met  with  encouraging  success,  and  in  order  to 

836 


\*      T' 


%\*ho 


ar5<i 


Jl  UCI 


3os;epfj  iW.  JBojijfafe 


PHILADELPHIA  839 

the  best  appointed,  and  most  attractively  stocked  in  the 
country,  and  an  all-year  business  is  the  rule. 

John  Davis  began  the  manufacture  of  furs  at  retail 
in  1833,  and  was  more  than  usually  prosperous.  He  was 
an  upright  merchant  and  enjoyed  the  confidence  of  a 
large  clientele.  In  due  time  he  admitted  his  sons  into 
partnership,  with  satisfactory  results.  The  business 
was  discontinued  March  10,  1902. 

J.  A.  Stambach  opened  a  small  furrier's  business 
in  1840,  conducting  at  the  outset  a  custom  trade;  his 
excellent  workmanship  was  widely  recognized,  and  for 
fifty-eight  years  he  steadily  progressed,  finally  advanc- 
ing to  first  place.    He  retired  December  31,  1898. 

Edward  S.  Mawson  was  actively  engaged  in  manu- 
facturing and  retailing  fashionable  furs  in  Philadelphia 
from  1850  to  1890;  he  was  well  known  in  the  trade  both 
at  home  and  abroad.    Mr.  Mawson  died  April  6,  1890. 

Gabriel  Shoyer  established  a  manufacturing  and 
retail  fur  business  in  Philadelphia  in  1867;  he  was  a  pop- 
ular man  and  a  furrier  of  more  than  ordinary  ability 
and  enterprise,  and  duly  attained  a  position  of  leading 
rank  in  the  trade.    He  died  November  22,  1891. 

Leo  L.  Cohn  has  been  successfully  engaged  in  the 
manufacturing  and  retail  fur  business  in  Philadelphia 
since  1875,  ^^^  is  still  active  at  the  "old  stand." 

In  former  years  practically  all  the  fur  stores  were 
on  Arch  Street,  a  center  not  greatly  improved  archi- 
tecturally "unto  this  day";  at  the  present  time  the 
modern  and  model  establishments  are  noticeably  present 
on  Chestnut  and  Walnut  Streets,  and  here  and  there  all 
around  town. 


Baltimore 

For  many  decades  Baltimore,  Maryland,  has  been  a 
busy  center  for  the  collection  of  raw  furs  during  the 
trapping  season,  and  each  year  a  number  of  merchants 
have  found  it  profitable  to  handle  the  peltries  secured  in 
the  surrounding  territory ;  a  few  of  the  merchants  deal 
in  raw  furs  exclusively,  but  a  larger  number  handle  pel- 
tries in  connection  with  farm  produce,  terrapin  and 
other  sea  food.  The  regular  collection  of  raw  furs  in- 
cludes fox,  opossum,  raccoon,  mink,  skunk,  muskrat  and 
a  few  other  skins,  but  muskrat  is  the  article  received  in 
largest  quantity,  the  animal  abounding  in  the  nearby 
marshes  and  in  the  lowlands  swept  by  the  tides. 

Baltimore  is  also  a  leading  market  for  the  sale  of 
muskrats  for  food,  thousands  of  carcasses  being  sold 
and  consumed  annually. 

There  is  a  remarkably  good  business  in  manufac- 
tured furs  at  Baltimore,  which  is  efficiently  taken  care 
of  by  some  thirty,  enterprising  furriers,  and  a  larger 
number  of  department  and  specialty  stores. 

For  half  a  century  Robert  Quail  Taylor,  individ- 
ually and  in  association  with  efficient  partners,  con- 
ducted a  fur  business  at  Baltimore  not  surpassed  in 
character  and  extent  at  any  time  in  the  Monumental 
City.  He  began  in  1843  with  a  capital  of  seven  hundred 
dollars,  and  in  later  years  sold  single  garments  for  a 
much  larger  amount.  In  1868  William  W.  Pretzman 
and  G.  E.  S.  Lansdowne  became  identified  with  the  bus- 
iness, and  full  partners  on  February  i,  1879.  Mr.  Tay- 
lor died  June  23,  1895. 

L.  Kraus  has  been  a  reliable  and  successful  manu- 

840 


^  BALTIMORE  141 

facturing  furrier  at  Baltimore  since  1864;  his  business 
has  grown  by  degrees,  even  as  the  city  has  expanded, 
and  enjoys  the  same  excellent  reputation,  and  is  as  well 
known  as  the  monuments. 

The  number  of  furriers  in  the  city  has  greatly  in- 
creased in  recent  years,  with  "honors  even,"  and  equal 
opportunity  for  all  to  attain  gratifying  success. 

HONORABLE   MENTION 

The  following  are  included  in  the  record,  not  be- 
cause remarkably  great — "patient  continuance  in  well 
doing,"  constitutes  the  attainment  of  greatness  in  the 
realm  of  business — but  they  are  given  place  because  de- 
serving of  mention  in  that  wherever  they  have  pitched 
their  tents  they  have  materially  elevated  the  standard  of 
the  fur  industry,  established  a  new  center,  and  aug- 
mented the  consumption  of  rightly  named  and  thor- 
oughly reliable  furs. 

It  is  a  long  way  back  to  the  eighteenth  century,  but 
we  trace  our  march  thither  in  noting  the  history  of  the 
oldest  house,  under  one  name,  in  the  fur  business  of  the 
United  States;  during  all  the  years  it  has  been  at  the 
same  place,  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y. 

In  1799  Tunis  Van  Kleeck  established  in  the  hat 
and  raw  fur  business  in  the  above  New  York  town,  con- 
tinuing until  1 83 1,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Albert  Van  Kleeck,  who  remained  actively  engaged  until 
1866,  when  the  business  was  transferred  to  his  son, 
Edward  Van  Kleeck,  who  conducted  it  alone  until  Feb- 
ruary I,  1890,  when  he  admitted  his  brother,  Frank, 
under  style,  Edward  Van  Kleeck  &  Co.,  until  November 
13,  1890,  since  which  date  it  has  been  successfully  car- 
ried on  by  Frank  Van  Kleeck. 


342  HONORABLE   MENTION 

L.  Benedict,  a  merchant  of  the  old  school,  estab- 
lished at  Cleveland,  Ohio,  in  1815,  in  the  manufacturing 
and  retail  fur  business  which  abides  to  the  present  day 
in  the  succession  of  Benedict  &  Mueller,  a  firm  well 
known  locally  and  in  the  larger  markets. 

John  Galligher,  who  was  born  at  Zanesville,  Ohio, 
August  14,  1822,  on  attaining  his  majority  entered  the 
fur  and  hat  business  of  his  father,  and  in  1850  became 
sole  owner,  and  so  continued  to  1883,  when  he  took  his 
sons,  John  and  Louis  C.  Galligher,  into  partnership ;  on 
December  30,  1895,  he  died  in  the  sixty-fourth  year  of 
his  age.  The  business  has  since  been  successfully  con- 
ducted by  John  and  L.  C.  Galligher,  who  have  built  up 
an  extensive  trade  in  raw  furs  and  ginseng. 

Milton  Tootle,  born  in  Clarksburg,  Ohio,  1823,  en- 
gaged in  the  raw  fur  business  at  the  age  of  twenty,  as 
the  outcome  of  considerable  experience  in  trapping  in 
the  immediately  preceding  years.  He  was  very  enter- 
prising, and  secured  warehouses  in  Omaha,  Nebraska, 
Sioux  City  and  Council  Bluffs,  Iowa,  and  in  1849  niade 
his  main  house  at  St.  Joseph,  Missouri,  meeting  with 
success  at  all  places,  and  amassing  a  fortune  of  more 
than  three  million  dollars.    He  died  January  2,  1887. 

Joshua  A.  Cotrell  established  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  in 
1830,  what  eventually  became,  and  remains,  the  best 
known  fur  house  in  that  city.  In  1855  he  took  in  his  son, 
Edgar  Cotrell,  as  a  clerk,  and  four  years  later  as  a  part- 
ner; in  1867  Daniel  Leonard  was  admitted  into  partner- 
ship, and  in  1878  the  firm  name  was  changed  to  Cotrell  & 


HONORABLE  MENTION  843 

Leonard;  the  firm  has  continuously  enjoyed  the  respect 
of  the  trade  at  large. 

Joshua  A.  Cotrell  died  February  i6,  1878,  in  the 
seventy-fourth  year  of  his  age.  Edgar  Cotrell  died 
April  14,  1890. 

T.  S.  Paddock  conducted  without  any  set-back  an 
ever  progressing  fur  business  at  Cleveland  from  1836  to 
1 89 1,  occupying  the  same  store  during  the  entire  period. 
He  died  January  4,  1891,  aged  seventy-seven.  The 
stock  was  purchased  by  Halle  Brothers,  who  continued 
the  business  for  a  time  at  the  "old  stand,"  but  who  now 
occupy  one  of  the  handsomest  stores  in  the  new  business 
section  of  the  city. 

Charles  H.  Paulson,  a  business  man  of  extreme 
efficiency  and  integrity,  established  a  fur  house  in  Pitts- 
burgh, Pennsylvania,  in  1837.  The  business  grew  slow- 
ly but  surely,  and  has  always  been  regarded  as  one  of 
the  most  substantial  mercantile  enterprises  in  the  city. 
It  remains  to  the  present  day,  Paulson  Brothers  being 
the  successors. 

Ezra  W.  Boughton  opened  a  modest  fur  business, 
manufacturing  and  retailing,  at  Troy,  N.  Y.,  in  1842; 
he  made  it  a  rule  to  never  misrepresent  an  article,  and 
quickly  gained  the  confidence  of  a  host  of  fur  wearers, 
not  only  in  Troy,  but  in  Albany  and  the  adjacent  coun- 
try.   He  died  October  29,  1902,  aged  seventy-eight. 

George  Scherer  opened  an  up-to-date  fur  store  in 
Albany  in  1848,  and  for  more  than  half  a  century  occu- 


344  HONORABLE   MENTION 

pied  a  prominent  position  in  the  business  life  of  that 
historic  fur  center.  He  died  March  5,  1908,  in  the 
eighty-third  year  of  his  age.  The  business  is  continued 
by  Charles  Scherer,  his  son,  who  was  for  some  years  in 
partnership  with  his  father. 

Henry  Martin,  a  man  of  marked  intelligence  and 
business  ability,  established  a  fur  business  at  Utica,  N. 
Y.,  in  1857,  manufacturing  and  retailing,  and  in  the  sea- 
son buying  raw  furs  in  quantity.  He  was  very  popular 
and  public  spirited,  and  for  a  term  was  Mayor  of  the 
city.  He  died  April  26,  191 5.  The  business  was  incor- 
porated in  April,  1905,  as  Henry  Martin  Company;  the 
officers  are:  Edwin  H.  Martin,  president  and  treasurer; 
Margaret  Martin,  vice  president;  John  N.  Corbett,  sec- 
retary. 

Hiram  Willard  opened  a  raw  fur  business  in  Mar- 
shalltown,  Iowa,  in  1864,  and  by  uniform  fair  dealing 
with  the  smallest  as  well  as  the  largest  shippers,  built  up 
a  solid  trade,  which  for  all  round  reliability  ranks  among 
the  very  highest  in  the  country.  Mr.  Willard  in  due 
course  took  his  son  into  the  business,  and  later  it  was 
changed  to  the  present  style,  H.  Willard,  Son  &  Com- 
pany. The  business  comprised  hides  and  raw  furs  ex- 
clusively until  1 9 10,  when  fur  tanning  and  manufactur- 
ing departments  were  added,  covering  complete  lines  of 
men's  and  ladies'  fur  goods. 

Hiram  Willard  died  in  1906,  and  the  business  was 
then  taken  over  by  his  son-in-law,  Charles  H.  Hull;  in 
191 1  William  B.  and  Albert  F.  Hull  were  admitted, 
under  style  H.  Willard,  Son  &  Co. 


HONORABLE   MENTION  845 

Balch,  Price  &  Co.,  have  for  approximately  half  a 
century  maintained  the  leading  position  among  the  man- 
ufacturing furriers  of  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  During  the  en- 
tire period  they  have,  with  ever  increasing  success,  de- 
voted their  energies  to  the  production  of  fur  garments 
and  small  furs  of  the  choicest  quality,  including  sables, 
foxes,  seal,  mink  and  other  fashinonable  and  costly 
peltries. 

Joseph  Pladwell  conducted  the  wholesale  manufac- 
ture of  fur  gloves  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  for  more  than  a 
generation  prior  to  his  death.  May  14,  1878.  He  was  an 
exceedingly  conscientious  furrier,  and  instead  of  seek- 
ing to  become  the  largest  manufacturer  in  the  country, 
made  dependable  quality  the  standard  of  his  produc- 
tions. Following  his  death  the  business  was  continued 
by  his  widow  and  sons  under  style,  J.  Pladwell's  Sons. 

John  M.  Cooper,  Bainbridge,  N.  Y.,  is  progressing 
toward  the  half-century  mark  as  a  buyer  of  raw  furs, 
of  which  he  has  no  superior  as  a  judge,  and  whose  rep- 
utation for  honesty  and  fair  dealing  is  faultless.  He  is 
exceptionally  public  spirited,  and  the  best  laws  for  the 
seasonable  protection  of  fur-bearing  animals,  and  the 
wise  regulation  of  the  raw  fur  business,  ever  written 
upon  the  statute  books  of  New  York  State  are  directly 
-due  to  his  tireless  efforts  and  effectual  influence. 

Udelmer  C.  Adams  established  in  the  manufactur- 
ing and  retail  fur  business  at  128  South  Salina  Street, 
Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  in  1870,  under  style  Stevens  &  Adams; 
following  the  death  of  Mr.  Stevens  in  1893,  Mr.  Adams 


346  HONORABLE   MENTION       • 

purchased  the  interest  of  his  late  associate  and  con- 
tinued the  enterprise  alone,  and  in  his  own  name,  until 
1910,  when  the  business  was  incorporated  under  title, 
Udelmer  C.  Adams  Company,  with  which  Mr.  Adams 
remained  actively  identified,  as  president,  up  to  the  time 
of  his  death,  November  28,  1916. 

Mr.  Adams  was  exceedingly  conscientious,  han- 
dled only  reliable  goods,  and  never  permitted  an  article 
of  fur  to  be  sold  under  the  slightest  misrepresentation 
as  to  name  or  quality — and  the  fact  was  widely  known, 
and  a  sufficient  reason  for  his  success. 

G.  R.  Hunnewell,  Auburn,  Maine,  is  the  oldest 
established  and  largest  raw  fur  dealer  in  the  State.  He 
began  buying  furs  in  his  youth,  and  has  kept  at  it  with 
remarkable  success.  His  knowledge  of  furs,  including 
the  several  points  that  count  in  determining  value,  is 
not  surpassed,  and  in  the  course  of  his  experience  he  has 
purchased  some  of  the  finest  skins  found  on  the  conti- 
nent, and  hundreds  of  thousands  of  the  commoner  pelts. 

Hull  Foster,  Jr.,  began  buying  raw  furs  at  Athens, 
Ohio,  in  1872,  and  in  the  more  than  forty  years  of  his 
active  connection  with  the  trade,  always  at  the  same 
place,  has  consistently  endeavored  to  elevate  the  busi- 
ness, and  has  gained  for  himself  a  high  reputation  for 
ability  and  integrity.  H.  Z.  Foster,  his  son,  is  now  asso- 
ciated with  him  in  the  business. 

Adolph  Rauh,  though  born  into  the  fur  business, 
gained  his  personal  success  in  practically  all  branches  of 
the  trade  by  unwearied  industry.     In  1874  he  entered 


HONORABLE   MENTION  847 

the  fur  business  in  the  employ  of  his  father,  Frie  Rauh, 
at  Nueremberg,  Germany,  devoting  his  attention  to  the 
raw  fur  department ;  about  three  years  later  he  was  en- 
gaged by  the  old  established  Leipzig  house,  Lomer,  Do- 
del  &  Co.,  and  when  that  concern  was  dissolved  in  1880 
he  was  transferred  to  a  similar  position  with  G.  Gaudig 
&  Blum,  Leipzig,  by  whom  he  was  sent  in  1883  to  their 
New  York  branch  to  become  their  raw  fur  buyer.  He 
remained  with  the  house  until  1890,  in  which  year  he 
was  employed  by  R.  Schoverling  to  buy  raw  furs  and 
sell  dressed  and  dyed  skins ;  four  years  later  he  was  sim- 
ilarly engaged  by  Asch  &  Jaeckel,  and  in  1896  went  with 
the  Transatlantic  Fur  Company  as  western  traveler. 
In  May  1892,  in  association  with  Paul  Richter,  Mr. 
Rauh  purchased  the  manufacturing  and  raw  fur  busi- 
iness  established  at  Butte,  Montana,  by  Robert  Koene; 
in  May,  191 3,  he  took  over  the  entire  business,  and  suc- 
cessfully continued  alone  until  191 7,  when  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Richard  P.  Hoenck. 

William  Grabowsky,  who  is  an  exceedingly  capable 
furrier,  established  a  fur  business  at  Pittsburgh,  Penn- 
sylvania, in  March,  1875,  manufacturing  for  particular 
retail  custom.  On  September  i,  19 14,  he  admitted  into 
partnership  his  son,  John  Rudolph  Grabowsky.  The 
concern  handles  furs  of  real  merit,  and  spends  money 
freely  and  wisely  in  making  the  fact  widely  known. 

L.  H.  Schlosberg,  Portland,  is  the  largest  exclusive 
manufacturing  furrier  in  the  State  of  Maine;  he  occu- 
pies an  entire  four-story  building  on  Congress  Street, 
and  makes  a  feature  of  the  manufacture  of  the  best 


S4a  HONORABLE  MENTION 

class  of  furs,  selling  to  retail  and  wholesale  trade.  The 
business  was  established  in  1894,  and  its  continuance  to 
date  very  plainly  evidences  its  values  to  the  community. 

A.  E.  Burkhardt  began  his  career  in  the  fur  busi- 
ness in  Cincinnati  in  1866,  opening  in  a  small  way  with 
limited  means,  but  with  unlimited  enterprise,  and  a 
determination  to  mount  by  merit  to  the  topmost  round 
of  the  ladder.  From  the  beginning  he  dealt  in  raw  furs, 
of  which  he  was  a  superior  judge,  and  also  manufac- 
tured furs  of  approved  quality,  scoring  ever  increasing 
success  for  more  than  two  decades ;  a  career  so  brilliant, 
for  which  nothing  in  business  ventures  of  promise  was 
too  great,  naturally  invited  some  reverse  in  a  trade  sub- 
ject to  great  advances  and  retrogressions  by  the  varying 
whims  of  fashion,  instability  of  climatic  conditions,  and 
the  inescapable  effect  of  unfavorable  years  in  general 
business;  but  though  experiencing  a  period  of  depres- 
sion, which  exceedingly  few  in  any  branch  of  trade  have 
escaped,  Mr.  Burkhardt  was  undaunted,  heroically  met 
and  mastered  the  condition,  arose  again  and  is  still  on 
deck  as  the  most  energetic  and  progressive  raw  fur 
merchant  in  his  city.  For  some  years  past  he  has  been 
ably  assisted  by  his  son  Carl  Burkhardt. 

Coloman  Jonas  and  John  Jonas,  under  style  of 
Jonas  Brothers,  established  as  furriers  and  taxidermists 
at  Denver,  Colorado,  in  1908,  and  have  continued  with 
marked  success.  Both  members  are  exceptionally  effi- 
cient taxidermists,  and  fine  specimens,  heads  and  entire 
animals,  have  been  mounted  by  them  for  sportsmen  and 
furriers  throughout  the  west  and  northwest,  and  more 
remote  sections. 


^cattle 

The  Seattle  Fur  Sales  Agency  was  incorporated  in 
June,  1906,  at  Seattle,  Washington,  with  F.  M.  Wood- 
ruff as  manager.  The  first  sale  of  the  concern  was  held 
July  18,  1906,  and  comprised  a  collection  of  good  Alaska 
raw  furs — the  principal  articles  offered  in  all  succeeding 
sales  to  date.  The  Agency  has  been  a  success  under  the 
management  of  F.  M.  Woodruff,  and  has  been  of  in- 
calculable advantage  to  many  collectors  of  large  and 
small  lots  in  Alaska,  who  have  thus  been  enabled  to 
readily  market  their  furs  at  better  figures  than  they 
formerly  realized  by  selling  their  furs  at  home,  or  ship- 
ping to  unknown  concerns  soliciting  shipments  by  mail. 


849 


348 


class  o^ 

busine 

date 


H'" 


iSeto  |9orfe  Jf  ur  Auction 

The  New  York  Fur  Auction  Sale  Corporation  held 
an  auction  sale  of  raw  furs  October  15-19,  both  dates 
inclusive,  at  which  the  offerings  comprised: 


Fisher 414 

Sea  Otter 2 

Wolverine 272 

Bear 786 

Marten 3,888 

Mole   71,069 

Ermine   42,998 

Wolf  i^,72y 

Chinchilla 846 

Raccoon 31 ,806 

Civet  8,599 

Otter 1,532 

Kolinsky 13,685 

Nutria 43»3i8 

Badger 5,372 

Mink 43,462 

Muskrat   600,086 

Kangaroo 245 

Squirrel 12,400 

Marmot 1,261 

Leopard 474 

Stone  Marten 185 

Blue  Fox 644 

Cross  Fox 788 


Red  Fox 6,684 

White  Fox 1,888 

Silver  Fox 326 

Grey  Fox 4,626 

Skunk   88,897 

Lynx 4,756 

Beaver 8,689 

Pahmi 9,692 

White  Hare 200 

Russian  Sable  ....  199 

Russian  Fitch  ....  2,327 
AmericanOpossum  1 1 3,83 1 

Ringtail  Opossum.  13,949 
AustralianOpossum  19,403 

Australian  Fox  . .  3,156 

Japanese  Marten..  1,217 

Japanese  Mink  .  . .  4,420 

Chinese  Weasel  . .  42,686 

Chinese  Civet 4>556 

Leopard  Cat 4405 

Wild  Cat 11,017 

Ringtail  Cat 1,196 

House  Cat 15*097 

Sundries 


850 


NEW   YORK   FUR   AUCTION 

It  was  a  great  sale,  not  merely  because  nearly 
ooo  pelts  were  sold,  but  importantly  in  that  it  in 
sively  proved  that  once  and  again  raw  furs  in  exti 
quantity,  in  spite  of  the  non-existence  of  foreign 
mand,  may  readily  be  marketed  in  the  true  center  of  thv 
industry. 

It  was  great  in  that  it  brought  into  clear  relief  the 
positive  spirit  of  patriotism  prevailing  in  the  Fur  Trade 
of  America. 


Mayor  Mitchel,  of  New  York,  addressed  the  as- 
sembled merchants  in  behalf  of  the  Second  Liberty  Loan, 
and  the  response  was  spontaneous  and  inspiring,  in- 
dividual subscriptions  ranging  upward  to  one  hundred 
thousand  dollars  being  made  as  rapidly  as  the  tellers 
could  record  names  and  amounts;  bonds  were  taken  in 
the  five  days  of  the  sales  to  the  amount  of 

$3,716,900 

351 


"Blue  pelts,"  the  term  correctly  describing  fur  skins 
which  are  blue  on  the  pelt  or  leather  side,  are  the  skins 
of  fur-bearers  caught  early  in  the  fall,  while  the  tem- 
perature is  above  freezing;  such  skins  are  "unprime," 
and  the  condition  of  the  leather  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  blood  which  supplies  "life"  to  the  fur  and  hair  at 
the  roots  during  the  period  of  growth,  has  not  completed 
its  purpose  and  been  in  due  course  absorbed  into  the 
veins  of  the  body.  When  the  animal  is  killed  in  this 
stage  of  development,  the  light  strain  of  blood  feeding 
the  fur  coagulates,  corrupts,  turns  the  pelt  blue,  and 
weakens  it  as  corruption  progresses. 

A  blue  pelt  invariably  means  immature  fur,  and  a 
weak  leather.  The  same  skin  caught  a  few  weeks  later, 
when  prime,  would  be  mature  in  fur  and  strong  in 
leather,  and  would  command  a  much  higher  price — and 
be  worth  the  difference. 

"Shedders"  is  the  term  applied  to  fur  skins  caught 
in  the  spring  from  the  time  the  temperature  again  rises 
and  remains  above  thirty-two  degrees.  Such  skins  may, 
if  not  taken  too  late,  have  fairly  strong  leather,  but 
the  excess  of  fur  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
normal  condition  of  the  animal  in  winter  begins  to 
fall  out,  or  "shed,"  and  continues  to  do  so  after  the 
skin  has  been  manufactured,  and  on  account  of  its 
poor  wearing  quality  tends  to  condemn  good  fur  as  well 
as  bad  in  the  opinion  of  purchasers  for  consumption. 


BLUE   PELTS  AND    SHEDDERS 


363 


Legislatures  of  the  several  States  should  prohibit 
the  capture  of  fur-bearing  animals  before  the  fur  be- 
comes prime,  under  penalty  of  seizure  of  the  skins  wher- 
ever found  with  added  fines  for  all  subsequent  offences. 
There  is  a  more  effective  remedy.  Raw  fur  dealers  and 
furriers  know  that  as  a  rule  blue  pelts  and  shedders  are 
practically  worthless,  wanton  waste,  and  should  there- 
fore refuse  to  buy  them  at  any  price.  The  present  inter- 
ests of  the  trade,  and  the  perpetuity  of  the  fur  industry, 
demand  such  action,  not  to-morrow  or  some  time,  but 
NOW. 


Jf  ut  JSresisimg 


Fur  skins  are  rendered  clean,  odorless,  and  pliant 
by  a  process,  embracing  several  operations,  known  as 
dressing;  it  is  the  initial  manipulation,  and  definitely 
and  effectively  marks  the  distinction  between  "skins" 
and  "furs."  The  date  at  which  skins  were  first  dressed 
is  unknown,  but  it  is  a  well  attested  fact  that  fur  dress- 
ing is  not  an  attainment  to  be  credited  to  civilization,  for 
it  was  practiced  long  before  Governments  were  dreamed 
of  or  States  were  formed. 

Civilized  navigators  and  pioneers  of  earliest  record 
who  visited  great  or  small  or  out-of-the-way  places 
where  seasons  rule,  moderately  low  temperatures  or  the 
ice  king  continuously  reign,  invariably  found  that  the 
aborigines,  yellow  and  red,  knew  how  to  dress  the  skins 
of  furry  animals,  and  in  most  instances  were  master 
workmen,  or  workwomen,  for  much  of  the  fur  dressing 
done  by  people  ranking  as  savages  was,  and  is,  done  by 
women. 

North  American  Indians  and  Esquimaux  have,  so 
far  as  can  be  learned,  been  particularly  efficient,  and 
their  dressing  is  not  surpassed  in  any  essential  point  by 
the  most  skilled  modern  workmen  operating  singly  or 
in  teams  with  vastly  superior  mechanical  devices  and 
approved  materials. 

Peltries  of  every  description  as  removed  from  the 
bodies  of  the  animals  are  stretched  and  dried  on  boards, 
in  which  state  they  are  classed  as  "raw,"  are  hard,  stiff, 
greasy,  more  or  less  unpleasantly  odorous,  and  in  every 
particular  unfit  for  use,  and  therefore  have  to  pass 
through  the  operations  known  as  dressing  to  render 

854 


FUR   DRESSING  855 

them  available  for  manufacturing  purposes ;  dressing  re- 
sults in  perfectly  purifying  and  deodorizing  the  fur,  and 
making  the  leather  as  soft  and  pliant  as  the  finest  kid 
used  in  making  gloves. 

Methods  of  dressing  furs  pursued  by  expert  dress- 
ers engaged  exclusively  in  the  work,  are  too  complicated 
to  be  learned  other  than  by  practical  experience,  particu- 
larly in  the  manipulation  of  the  choicer  and  very  costly 
skins,  which  have  to  be  handled  with  great  care  to  avoid 
injuring  the  fur — except  under  arrangements  at  "own- 
er's risk,"  the  dresser  has  to  make  good  losses  due  to 
his  inefficiency.    All  fur  skins  are  not  dressed  in  exactly 
the  same  manner,  generally,  however,  they  are  soaked 
for  a  number  of  hours  in  slightly  salted  water  to  ad- 
vance the  softening  of  the  leather;  the  skins  are  then 
allowed  to  remain  in  the  air  until  the  moisture  exapo- 
rates,  after  which  they  are  greased  on  the  leather  side 
with  butter,  oil  or  lard  of  best  quality ;  low  grade  butter 
and  cheap  oils  have  been  used  on  all  but  the  highest 
priced  skins,  but  not  with  satisfactory  results  as  the 
finished  furs  retained  somewhat  of  the  offensive  odor 
inherent  in  such  materials.    The  skins,  varying  in  num- 
ber according  to  quality  and  size,  are  next  placed  in  a 
machine  similar  to  that  used  in  felting  wool,  operated  by 
power,  and  which  as  it  revolves  turns  the  skins  over  and 
over  and  upon  each  other  until  the  leather  becomes  quite 
clean  and  soft ;  during  this  operation  the  skins  are  liable 
to  become  over-heated,  and  if  this  condition  is  approxi- 
mated the  skins  are  promptly  removed  from  the  machine, 
spread  out  to  cool,  and  are  again  put  back  for  a  final 
beating.    Skins  heated  to  excess  while  being  beaten  may 
be  uninjured  in  leather,  but  the  fur  will  be  damaged, 


358  FUR   DRESSING 

appearing  curled,  crinkled  and  burned  in  spots  and 
patches;  such  skins  are  classed  as  "singed,"  and  the 
total  or  partial  loss  in  value  falls  upon  the  dresser. 

When  the  beating  operation  is  completed  the  skins 
are  individually  examined,  and  all  remaining  shreds  of 
flesh  and  fat  are  removed  with  a  dull  knife ;  the  skins  are 
next  placed  in  a  machine  with  a  mixture  of  sawdust,  rye- 
bran  or  wheat  flour,  and  are  beaten  with  alternating 
plungers  until  the  sawdust  mixture  takes  up  as  near  as 
may  be  all  the  grease,  natural  and  added  for  dressing, 
both  upon  the  surface  and  in  the  pores  of  the  leather; 
the  small  amount  of  grease  remaining  upon  completion 
of  the  above  operation  is  removed  either  with  clay,  or 
by  placing  the  skins  in  a  revolving  wheel,  called  a 
"drum,"  with  very  fine  sawdust  from  red  cedar,  and 
revolving  them  until  all  grease  is  absorbed.  Following 
their  removal  from  the  drum  the  skins  are  shaken  or 
beaten  to  remove  the  sawdust  and  other  dressing  sub- 
stances from  the  fur. 

The  operation  of  cleansing  the  leather  of  grease 
with  sawdust  and  bran  was  formerly  performed  by 
"treading^*;  the  skins  and  dressing  substances  were 
placed  in  casks  and  men  tramped  them  with  their  bare 
feet  for  hours — in  instances  the  men  treading  the  pelts 
were  not  only  "in  their  bare  feet,"  but  were  otherwise 
as  undressed  as  the  furs  they  were  treading. 

When  the  mechanical  operations  are  completed, 
workmen  carefully  comb  the  fur  on  all  parts  of  the  pelt, 
and  then  for  the  first  moment  since  its  removal  from  the 
body  of  the  animal  the  beauty  or  defects  of  the  fur  be- 
come fully  manifest  to  the  observer. 

Furs  are  first  dressed  and  are  then  dyed;  but  cer- 


FUR   DRESSING  857 

tain  kinds  of  skins  are  only  partially  dressed  and  are 
then  dyed,  the  dressing  being  subsequently  completed; 
owing  to  this  practice  dressing  and  dyeing,  are  often  con- 
ducted in  the  same  establishment,  particularly  by  opera- 
tors who  prefer,  on  account  of  the  responsibility  in- 
volved, to  dye  skins  of  their  own  dressing. 

The  work  of  fur  dressing  is  performed  chiefly  at 
and  in  the  vicinity  of  Leipzig,  and  in  lesser  amount  in 
other  cities  of  Germany;  at  and  near  Paris  and  Lyon, 
France;  Moscow  and  Petrograd,  Russia;  London,  Eng- 
land; Greater  New  York,  Newark,  N.  J.,  and  to  a  lesser 
extent  in  other  cities  in  the  United  States. 

Furs  were  more  or  less  excellently  dressed  from  the 
earliest  date  at  which  they  were  used  as  clothing  by 
savages,  barbarians,  partially  and  progressively  civilized 
men. 

The  work  of  the  Esquimau  fur  dresser  is  perfect  in 
every  particular.  In  1609,  when  Henry  Hudson  ex- 
plored the  country  bordering  the  river  now  bearing  his 
name,  he  learned  that  the  Indians  were  expert  fur 
dressers  as  well  as  alert  trappers  and  hunters;  and  the 
same  fact  was  noted  by  other  explorers  and  pioneers  as 
they  continued  their  march  toward  the  setting  sun. 

Indians  dress  skins  by  pegging  them  down,  leather 
side  up,  upon  a  smoothe,  hard  spot  of  earth;  the  only 
substances  used  is  the  brains  of  the  animal  from  which 
the  pelt  was  taken,  and  juices  of  certain  berries;  this 
brain-dressing  is  simply  rubbed  over  and  worked  into 
the  leather  until  it  becomes  nearly  dry,  and  is  then  care- 
fully scraped  off  with  a  blunt  instrument,  leaving  the 
pelt  perfectly  clean  and  soft.  In  the  era  of  made  haste 
in  bison  extermination  upon  the  western  plains  of  the 


358  FUR   DRESSING 

United  States,  Indian  dressed  buffalo  hides,  owing  to 
greater  care  in  skinning  as  well  as  excellence  in  dress- 
ing, commanded  a  higher  price  in  the  market  than 
"white  man  handled"  robes. 

Bpeing  anb  IPIenbins 

Though  skins  were  colored  somewhere  near  the 
date  of  the  Exodus,  furs  were  first  successfully  dyed  in 
the  eleventh  century,  but  the  results  achieved  at  that 
early  period  in  the  history  of  the  art  were  not  remark- 
ably impressive ;  and  for  many  years  very  little  progress 
was  made  in  this  particular  class  of  dyeing,  as  the  es- 
sential work  of  cleansing  the  fur  previous  to  applying 
the  dye  was  only  imperfectly  understood.  Within  the 
past  seventy-five,  but  more  importantly  the  last  thirty 
years,  great  improvements  have  been  perfected  in 
methods  of  dyeing  furs  both  abroad  and  at  home;  the 
progress  made  in  the  United  States,  mainly  in  Greater 
New  York  and  Newark,  has  been  most  rapid  and  pro- 
nounced, advancing  from  an  insignificant  beginning  to 
world  leadership  in  the  industry;  and  the  remarkable 
degree  in  perfection  attained  in  fur  dyeing  and  the  other 
operations  preliminary  to  manufacturing,  dressing, 
plucking  and  unhairing,  have  resulted  advantageously 
beyond  calculation  to  the  fur  trade  at  large  in  the  dis- 
covery and  development  of  the  latent  beauty  and  value 
of  many  previously  unappreciated  peltries  —  this  is 
especially  true  of  fur  seal  and  coney  skins.  Sundry 
other  furs,  noticeably  lynx,  opossum,  variegated,  and 
pale  or  faded  skins,  are  greatly  improved  in  appearance 
and  increased  in  value  by  dyeing  only. 


•  DYEING  359 

Formulas  are  guarded  as  invaluable  secrets;  each 
dye  of  acknowledged  superiority,  either  on  account  of 
color  or  fastness,  is  the  result  of  patient  study  and  re- 
peated experiments,  and  their  composition  and  manipu- 
lation cannot  be  obtained  from  the  discoverers  for  "love 
or  money." 

Furs  which  may  be  improved  by  dyeing,  and  those 
which  are  from  time  to  time  dyed  to  meet  periodic  de- 
mands of  fashion,  are  usually  colored  black,  brown  or 
blue ;  but  many  fancy  colors  are  also  produced  by  dyers 
as  fleeting  fads  or  imitations,  such  as  blue,  red,  orange, 
green,  purple  and  yellow  to  harmonize  with  garments 
to  be  fur-finished. 

Some  skins  are  at  times  dyed  in  dual  tones,  yellow 
ground  fur,  and  black  top  hairs ;  sheared  coney  has  been 
dyed  in  imitation  of  seal,  tiger,  leopard  and  zebra  skins ; 
white  foxes  and  white  hares  are  dyed  a  smoky,  bluish- 
brown  to  imitate  natural  blue  fox ;  these  are  only  a  few 
of  the  marvels  and  freaks  produced  by  efficient  fur  dyers, 
who  stand  ready  to  deliver  on  short  notice  any  novelty 
or  imitation  that  may  be  desired  in  quantity. 

As  a  rule  furs  are  dyed  in  the  tub,  that  is,  are  dipped 
in  the  liquid  dye  the  necessary  time  for  fixing  the  color ; 
seal  skin,  which  are  first  nailed  fur-side  out  on  boards 
prepared  for  the  purpose,  have  the  dye  brushed  on,  from 
four  to  twelve  applications  being  required  to  secure  the 
desired  tone.  Plucked  beaver  and  otter  are  also  brush- 
dyed. 

Brush-dyed  skins  suffer  no  deterioration  in  leather, 
remain  pliant,  and  are  much  more  durable  than  skins 
dipped  in  the  dye  tub. 

"Seal  color,"  for  many  years  a  comparative  term  in 


360  DYEING 

the  trade,  was  originally  a  beautiful  chestnut  brown,  but 
has  been  superceded  by  a  much  deeper  hue,  emanating 
from  Paris,  so  definitely  approximating  black  as  to  rank 
as  black  in  the  judgment  of  all  observers  except  the 
elect  few  claiming  the  possession  of  exceptional  color 
vision. 

Mink,  sable,  marten  and  other  furs  chiefly  beautiful 
on  account  of  the  abundance  of  long  glossy  hairs,  but 
which  owing  to  section  of  origin  or  season  of  capture 
are  naturally  too  light  in  color  to  be  in  vogue,  or  which 
have  become  faded,  are  darkened  by  an  operation  known 
as  "blending." 

Such  skins  would  lose  much  of  their  gloss  and 
strength  if  dipped  in  the  dye  tub,  and  much  of  the  es- 
sential sheen  of  the  long  hairs  would  be  destroyed  if  the 
dye  should  be  brushed  on  as  in  seal  dyeing;  as  a  rule 
only  small  portions  and  patches  of  the  fur  require  dark- 
ening, and  this  effect  is  secured  by  repeatedly  touching 
the  fur  to  be  toned  with  a  small  brush  dipped  in  a  tinc- 
ture specially  prepared  for  the  purpose,  the  painting 
being  continued  until  the  entire  pelt  is  "blended."  Furs 
that  have  become  faded  in  service  may  be  similarly 
treated;  or  when  new  fur  has  been  pieced  into  old  gar- 
ments, the  old  fur  may  be  blended  to  harmonize  in  color 
with  the  new. 

For  generations  it  was  believed  that  certain  fur 
skins  could  be  properly  dyed  only  in  Leipzig;  one  of  the 
principal  articles  so  regarded  was  Persian  lamb  skin, 
but  long  "before  the  war"  this  dressy  skin  was  satis- 
factorily colored  by  American  dyers.  For  many  years 
the  trade  assumed,  and  consumers  were  insistently 
taught,  that  fur  seal  skins  could  be  correctly  dressed 


DYEING  361 

and  dyed  nowhere  except  in  London,  and  during  the 
many  years  when  the  catch  exceeded  two  hundred  thou- 
sand skins  per  annum,  nearly  all  the  fur  seal  pelts  were 
manipulated  in  that  city,  and  American  wearers  of  fur 
seal  garments  and  novelties  per  force  paid  an  import 
duty  of  twenty  per  centum  on  an  American  article.  Seal 
skins  were  being  dyed  in  America  all  the  time,  though  in 
comparatively  small  supply,  and  the  dye  was  good. 
Dyers  at  Paris  also  successfully  entered  the  field,  and 
while  they  did  not  lead  in  volume,  they  set  the  fashion 
in  color — and  fashion  always  dominates  in  fur. 

The  number  of  fur  dyers  in  the  United  States  has 
increased  many  fold  in  the  past  ten  years,  and  they  now 
efficiently  dye  furs  of  every  class  suitable  for  dyeing; 
and  readily  produce  the  desired  color — natural  or  super- 
natural. 

ABORIGINAL  FUR  DRESSING  TOOLS 
Illustrations  of  fur  dressing  tools  shown  on  the 
succeeding  page  are  selected  from  a  large  number, 
greatly  differing  in  form,  used  by  North  American 
Indians,  as  presented  in  the  report  of  the  National 
Museum,  1889,  by  Otis  T.  Mason,  curator  of  the  De- 
partment of  Ethnology. 

EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE 

Fig.  I.  Beaming  Tool.  Made  from  the  tibia  of  a 
horse.  There  has  been  little  or  no  modification  of  the 
bone.  The  fibula  furnishes  a  most  excellent  natural  edge 
for  the  tool.  Cat.  No.  19891,  U.  S.  N.  M.  Piute  In- 
dians, southern  Utah.    Collected  by  Maj.  J.  W.  Powell. 

Fig.  2.  Graining  Tool.  Made  of  the  tibia  of  the 
deer.    At  the  middle  part,  where  the  bone  is  hardest,  it 


362  ABORIGINAL   DRESSING  TOOLS 

is  cut  in  two  diagonally  so  as  to  expose  a  square  edge 
on  the  posterior  part.  Teeth  are  cut  in  this  edge  to 
soften  the  skin  after  treatment.  Cat.  No.  19894,  U.  S. 
N.  M.  Utes  of  northern  Utah.  Collected  by  Maj.  J.  W. 
Powell. 

Fig.  3.  Graining  Tool.  Made  of  the  tibia  of  a 
horse.  The  column  cut  diagonally  across  the  middle  or 
hardest  portion  so  as  to  furnish  a  square  edge  on  the 
posterior  side.  Very  fine  teeth  have  been  made  along 
this  edge  for  graining  or  softening  the  skin.  Cat.  No. 
31316,  U.  S.  N.  M.  Indians  of  the  pueblo  of  Isleta,  New 
Mexico.  Collected  by  Dr.  H.  C.  Yarrow  and  Lieut. 
George  Wheeler,  U.  S.  Army. 

Fig.  4.  Graining  Tool.  Made  of  iron.  An  old- 
fashioned  wagon  skein,  used  on  wooden  axles  before 
iron  axles  were  invented.  The  upper  or  inner  portion 
shows  the  holes  for  the  rivets.  Its  edge  is  serrated  for 
graining  the  hide.  The  buckskin  thong  is  wrapped 
around  the  forearm  and  serves  as  a  brace  to  hold  the 
tool  rigid.  The  shaft  is  covered  with  buckskin  to  pro- 
tect the  hand.  Cat.  No.  14196,  U.  S.  N.  M.  Sioux  In- 
dians, Dakota.    Collected  by  Edward  Palmer. 

PLUCKING   AND   UNHAIRING 

All  animals  specially  valued  on  account  of  their 
pelage  have  a  coat  consisting  of  long,  rather  coarse  hairs 
scattered  over  the  entire  body,  and  which  generally  are 
darker  than  the  shorter,  softer  and  much  more  abundant 
set  of  exceedingly  fine  hairs  which  they  cover  from  view ; 
the  longer  surface  set  consists  wholly  of  hair,  the  under 
set  is  what  we  designate  as  fur. 

In  some  species  of  animals  classed  as  fur-bearers 


PLUCKING  AND   UNHAIRING 


863 


M 


n 


TOOI^S  USED  BT  INDIANS   IN  DRESSING   FUR  AND   OTHER   SKINS 


864  PLUCKING   AND   UNHAIRING 

the  upper  and  in  others  the  under  coat  correctly  ranks 
as  most  beautiful,  and  in  instances  as  the  only  attrac- 
tive division ;  a  few  specimens  are  doubly  valuable,  being 
exceedingly  handsome  "in  the  hair,"  or  as  fur  only. 
The  first  class,  those  naturally  beautiful,  includes  the 
sea  otter,  sable,  marten,  fox,  chinchilla,  mink,  skunk, 
lynx,  ermine,  and  a  few  others  having  short  hair  and 
fur  which  is  either  handsomely  marked,  or  uniform  in 
color;  those  in  which  the  soft  under  fur  is  regarded  as 
particularly  beautiful,  whether  natural  or  dyed,  include 
the  fur  seal,  beaver,  otter,  coney  and  muskrat;  the 
beaver,  otter,  nutria  and  muskrat  may  be  effectively  used 
either  natural,  plucked  or  dyed. 

The  operation  of  removing  the  long  hairs  is  vari- 
ously termed  plucking,  picking,  clipping,  shearing  and 
unhairing;  the  last  named  is  now  the  most  important. 

Beaver  skins  that  are  to  be  plucked  are  prepared  for 
the  operation  by  being  soaked  in  water  to  soften  the 
leather  and  open  the  pores  so  that  the  hairs  may  be  easily 
removed;  when  the  skins  become  soft  enough  to  be 
worked  they  are  warmed,  and  are  then  placed  upon  a 
rounded  beam,  fur  side  down,  and  shaved  on  the  leather 
side  with  a  moderately  sharp  knife  which  cuts  off  the 
hairs  at  the  roots  permitting  them  to  be  readily  drawn 
out,  or  plucked.  Otter  and  nutria  skins,  which  are 
similar  in  character  to  beaver,  and  opossum,  mink  and 
muskrat  are  plucked  in  practically  the  same  manner; 
otter,  natural  or  plucked,  is  a  superb  and  exceptionally 
durable  fur;  plucked  and  dyed  otter,  nutria,  mink  and 
muskrat  have  at  times  been  freely  used  as  seal  imita- 
tions, particularly  when  seal  was  universally  popular 
and  constantly  advancing  in  price,  and  the  other  articles 


PLUCKING   AND   UNHAIRING  366 

were  at  low-water  mark  in  value.  Fur  seal  skins  are 
plucked  differently,  requiring  two  operations  to  com- 
plete the  work ;  the  first  constitutes  a  part  of  the  opera- 
tion of  dressing,  the  second  may  be  done  at  any  time 
after  the  skins  have  been  dyed;  the  dressers  remove  a 
majority  of  the  long  hairs,  but  as  those  remaining,  ap- 
pearing as  tiny  glistening  points  irregularly  distributed 
over  the  dark  surface  of  the  fur,  mar  the  beauty  of  the 
pelt,  all  have  to  be  taken  out;  originally  this  finishing 
process  was  designated  as  "picking,"  and  was  done  by 
girls,  who  carefully  parted  the  fur,  held  it  down  and  then 
clipped  off  the  short  hairs  with  a  pair  of  shears  of 
peculiar  shape.  Since  1881  the  work  of  "picking,"  from 
that  date  defined  as  "unhairing,"  has  been  done  by  a 
simple  but  rather  remarkable  machine,  which  perfectly 
unhairs  a  skin  in  about  an  hour,  whereas  formerly  sev- 
eral days  were  required  to  do  the  work  imperfectly  by 
hand.  The  machine  consists  of  a  bellows  to  blow  the 
fur  apart,  a  comb  to  hold  it  down  while  the  hairs  are 
being  cut,  and  two  knives  set  horizontal ;  the  machine  is 
operated  by  a  treadle  moving  the  skin  forward  across 
an  iron  bar  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  at  a  time,  and  as 
the  bellows  blow  the  light  fur  open  the  stiff  hairs  stand- 
ing erect,  unaffected  by  the  light  current  of  air,  are  in- 
stantly clipped  off  by  the  knives  across  the  entire  width 
of  the  pelt. 

Some  skins,  especially  coney  and  muskrat,  are 
merely  "sheared" — that  is,  all  the  long  hairs  are  cut 
off  down  to  or  slightly  into  the  under  fur,  leaving  a 
complete  surface  of  uniform  depth;  sheared  skins  may 
be  used  natural  or  dyed  as  imitations  of  other  furs. 

White  furs,  particularly  fox  and  ermine,  and  es- 


866  PLUCKING   AND   UNHAIRING 

sentially  Polar  bear,  are  greatly  improved  in  appear- 
ance by  bleaching  in  sulphur  fumes  to  restore  the  fur 
to  a  clear,  uniform  white  on  pelts  that  have  become 
stained,  soiled  or  partially  yellow. 

ADOLPH    BOWSKY 

Adolph  Bowsky  is  the  oldest  living  and  actively  en- 
gaged fur  dresser  in  America.  He  was  born  in  Brom- 
berg,  Germany,  in  May,  1833;  after  learning  the  fur 
dressing  trade  in  Berlin,  he  came  to  New  York,  and  in 
1857  was  engaged  as  foreman  in  the  fur  dressing  and 
dyeing  works  of  Theodore  Favre,  with  whom  he  re- 
mained until  1863,  when  he  established  a  plant  of  his 
own  on  East  Fifty-first  Street,  where  the  business  has 
been  continuously  conducted  to  date. 

Mr.  Bowsky  was  one  of  the  first  dressers  to  suc- 
cessfully deodorize  skunk;  at  first  only  a  few  hundred 
skins  were  dressed  annually,  but  subsequent  to  1880  he 
dressed  in  excess  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand 
skins  in  a  single  year. 

MAX    BOWSKY 

Max  Bowsky,  born  in  Germany  in  1852,  came  to 
New  York  fourteen  years  later  and  at  once  began  an 
experimental  study  of  fur  dressing  and  dyeing,  con- 
tinuing his  apprenticeship  for  about  twelve  years.  In 
1879  he  established  independently,  and  on  account  of  the 
excellence  of  his  outpnt  became  one  of  the  best  known 
fur  dressers  and  dyers  in  America;  his  black  dye,  par- 
ticularly on  fine  lynx,  was  the  recognized  standard. 

He  died  December  12,  1907. 


DRESSERS  AND   DYERS  367 

JOSEPH   DENISON   WILLIAMS 
J.    D.    WILLIAMS,   INC. 

J.  D.  Williams,  whose  superior  fur  dyeing  establish- 
ment has  been  most  favorably  known  in  the  trade  of 
America  for  upwards  of  three-quarters  of  a  century, 
was  born  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  in  1817,  at  which  time  his 
father  was  just  beginning-  his  business  career  as  a 
dresser  and  dyer  of  furs.  Following  his  graduation  at 
Williams  College,  Mr.  Williams  secured  a  suitable  plant 
at  Marlboro,  N.  Y.,  and  engaged  in  fur  dressing  and 
dyeing  in  accordance  with  the  most  approved  methods 
of  the  time.  He  later,  in  association  with  his  father,  re- 
moved to  New  York  City  and  opened  a  factory  in  Bur- 
ling Slip  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  center  of  the 
fur  manufacturing  industry  of  that  date;  about  a  year 
later  a  great  fire  swept  over  that  part  of  the  city,  and 
Mr.  Williams  removed  ,to  Brooklyn  where  for  more 
than  half  a  century  he  personally  conducted  a  continu- 
ously enlarging  and  popular  business  in  dressing  and 
dyeing  fine  furs,  especially  seal,  beaver  and  otter. 

Some  time  prior  to  his  retirement  from  active  duty 
on  account  of  advancing  age,  he  admitted  his  sons  into 
the  business,  which  was  incorporated  in  1901,  under 
style :  J.  D.  Williams,  Inc. 

Mr.  Williams  died  at  his  place  of  residence  in 
Brooklyn,  April  3,  1901. 

SCHIFF   BROTHERS 

In  October,  1902,  Theodore  and  Abraham  Schiff 
and  John  C.  Crasser,  under  style,  Schiff  &  Company, 
purchased  the  factory  and  business  of  the  Rodiger  & 
Quarch  Fur  Dyeing  Company  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  and 


868  DRESSERS  AND  DYERS 

entered  upon  the  work  of  dressing  and  dyeing.  The 
members  of  the  firm  were  popular  and  progressive,  and 
made  unusually  rapid  progress  in  developing  a  business 
of  exceptional  magnitude.  In  1909  the  plant  was  taken 
over  by  Theodore  and  Abraham  Schiff,  under  title 
Schiff  Brothers,  and  continued  with  pronounced  suc- 
cess.   Theodore  Schiff  died  December  11,  191 5. 

HERMAN  BASCH  &  CO. 

Herman  Basch  &  Company  in  January,  1902,  estab- 
lished a  high  grade  fur  dyeing  business  in  the  City  of 
Churches,  and  today  the  "Basch  Dyes,"  which  are  prac- 
tically perfect  in  points  of  color  and  durability,  are 
favorably  known  to  all  leading  fur  merchants  and  manu- 
facturers. The  business  has  been  incorporated  and  was 
recently  removed  to  enlarged  premises. 

CHAPAL 

C.  &  E.  Chapal  Freres  &  Co.,  old  established  fur 
dyers  of  Paris,  France,  opened  a  branch  factory  in 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  early  in  1904.  It  is  one  of  the  best 
equipped  plants  for  the  purpose  in  America,  and  is  espe- 
cially organized  and  manned  for  dressing  and  dyeing  fur 
seal  skins  as  perfectly  as  the  work  is  done  in  the  cele- 
brated establishment  at  Paris.  All  other  fur  skins  in 
the  dyeing  class  are  also  handled  with  equally  excellent 
results.  Muskrat,  seal  and  otter  are  not  only  dyed,  but 
are  also  perfectly  machined. 

The  firm  additionally  operates  one  of  the  largest, 
best  equipped  and  in  all  respects  most  modern  fur  dress- 
ing departments  in  America,  in  which  they  dress  furs 
of  all  kinds,  the  workmanship  being  of  the  highest  order 
of  excellence  in  detail. 


DRESSERS   AND   DYERS  3e» 

A.  HOLLANDER 

An  exceptionally  large  and  successful  fur  dressing 
and  dyeing  plant  is  in  ''full  time"  operation  at  Newark, 
N.  J.,  under  the  proprietorship  of  A.  Hollander  &  Son. 
The  business  was  founded  by  A.  Hollander,  who  began 
in  a  small  way  in  every  particular  except  ability,  which 
was  of  the  order  which  neither  rests  nor  halts  until  it 
"goes  over  the  top." 

Michael  Hollander,  of  the  firm,  is  a  young  man  of 
great  enterprise  and  high  purpose;  he  is  extremely  pro- 
gressive, ceaselessly  seeks  the  latest  in  method,  and  by 
his  close  attention  to  quality  and  "speeding,"  has  car- 
ried the  plant  forward  to  the  first  class  both  in  grade  and 
output.  In  evidence  of  the  excellence  of  Hollander  dye 
a  parcel  of  some  thirty  thousand  seal-dyed  muskrat 
skins  manipulated  in  the  Newark  factory  were  offered  in 
a  regular  public  sale  in  London,  England,  July  2^,  1917. 

DRESSERS  AND  DYERS  BOARD  OF  TRADE 

The  Fur  Dressers'  and  Fur  Dyers'  Board  of  Trade 
was  incorporated  January,  1908,  with  Theodore  Schiif, 
of  Schiff  Brothers,  as  first  president;  the  membership 
embraced  the  fur  dressing  and  fur  dyeing  firms  in 
Greater  New  York,  Jersey  City  and  Newark.  The 
Board  was  organized  to  correct  abuses  that  were  seri- 
ously affecting  the  business,  noticeably  terms  of  dating, 
deductions  for  actual  and  imaginary  defects  in  dressing 
and  dyeing,  harmful  methods  in  competition,  and  other 
matters;  the  results  sought  to  be  effected  were  worked 
out — and  dressing  and  dyeing,  and  the  trade  served, 
have  been  immensely  benefitted  and  improved  in  tone 
and  condition. 


MY 


PRONG    HORNED   ANTELOPE 

Taxidermy  may  be  considered  as  the  "art  preserva- 
tive," not  of  the  fur  trade,  but  of  fur-bearers,  from  the 
mighty  grizzly  bear  down  to  the  tiny  white  mouse  with 
fiery  eyes ;  taxidermy  is  furthermore  a  coordinate  branch 
of  the  fur  trade,  and  where  furriers  most  abound  taxi- 
dermists set  up  their  ensigns  and  thrive;  many  taxi- 

370 


TAXIDERMY  871 

dermists  have  enlarged  their  borders  by  becoming  fur- 
riers, or  buyers  of  peltries,  as  secondary  sources  of  rev- 
enue; and  some  furriers  have  acquired  skill  as  taxi- 
dermists of  fair  repute — satisfied  artisans,  if  not  great 
artists. 

Furriers  deserve  to  be  nominated  the  patron  saints, 
as  they  surely  are  the  financial  sustainers,  of  taxiderm- 
ists; without  their  aid  and  encouragement  taxidermy 
as  an  art  might  exist  but  would  not  flourish  as  at  pres- 
ent; furriers  have  done  more  than  the  members  of  all 
all  other  branches  of  trade  combined  to  develop  taxi- 
dermy artistically  and  commercially,  to  make  it  very 
much  more  important  than  the  occasional  "stuffing"  of 
a  dead  pet  canary  or  a  lamented  tom  or  tabby. 

Once  in  a  while,  not  oftener,  the  maker  of  a  pre- 
digested  breakfast  food,  or  an  indigestible  soup,  may 
introduce  a  bear  "brand,"  or  adopt  a  tiger  trade  mark, 
and,  in  consequence,  require  a  mounted  bear  or  tiger  for 
the  main  office ;  now  and  then  a  sportsman  secures  a  fine 
specimen  and  has  it  mounted  as  a  memento  of  a  never- 
to-be-forgotten  event;  occasionally  taxidermists  are 
kept  busy  for  a  season  mounting  big  game  slaughtered 
wholesale  by  some  mighty  hunter,  one  more  successful 
as  a  slayer  of  beasts  than  as  a  winner  of  men  with 

Wonderful  words  of  war. 

Weasel  words  of  hate, 
'Possum  words  of  envy — 

Words  unfit  to  enunciate. 

Gun  and  ammunition  manufacturers,  dealers  in 
sportsmen's  goods,  and  northwestern  and  Canadian  rail- 


872  TAXIDERMY 

way  companies  decorate  their  offices  and  show  rooms 
with  mounted  moose,  deer,  antelope,  bear  and  wolf 
heads,  and  in  instances  entire  specimens  of  animals  and 
birds.  Larger  collections  are  preserved  in  museums 
throughout  the  country ;  the  best  and  most  complete  dis- 
play in  this  class  is  shown  at  the  Museum  of  Natural 
History,  New  York,  where  perfectly  mounted  specimens 
of  practically  all  species  of  American  wild  animals,  and 
many  Asiatic  and  African  specimens,  are  shown  in  fam- 
ilies and  small  herds  in  separate  rooms  which  by  the  use 
of  rocks,  tree  trunks,  shrubbery,  grasses,  leaves  and 
painted  backgrounds,  are  made  to  correctly  represent 
the  haunts  of  the  various  animals. 

All  these  give  the  taxidermist  much  to  do,  but  it  is 
the  furrier  who  keeps  him  busy  with  orders  for  speci- 
mens, show  pieces,  and  mounted  heads  for  rugs. 

A  furrier,  with  the  aid  of  a  small,  oddly-shaped 
knife  and  a  common  needle,  can  do  many  wonderful 
things. 

A  taxidermist,  one  who  is  an  artisan  indeed,  using 
equally  simple  tools,  can  perform  startling  feats — re- 
store unsightly  skins  of  dead  creatures  to  the  natural 
form  and  beauty  of  the  animals  from  which  they  were 
taken ;  make  them  again  lifelike,  true  to  nature  in  every 
respect  excepting  the  power  to  breathe. 

Ancient  embalmers  were  semi-taxidermists;  their 
subjects  are  well  preserved ;  modern  taxidermists  excel, 
in  that  specimens  passing  through  their  hands  are  per- 
fectly restored. 


ws 


dime's  (ilf)mQti 

Definitely  in  the  Fur  Trade, 
and  possibly  in  other  branches  of 
business  regarding  which  we  are 
not  fully  informed,  custom  deter- 
mines policy  and  procedure  as  au- 
tocratically as  Mrs.  Grundy  ruled 
the  world  of  fashion  continuously 
adown  the  years  to  the  close  of  the 
first  decade  of  the  present  century. 
American  raw  furs  were  sent 
abroad  to  be  publicly  sold  in  world- 
wide competition  in  order  to  de- 
termine market  values;  any  sug- 
gestion, however  reasonable,  that 
the  method  might  be  at  least  par- 
tially changed  with  beneficial  re- 
sults, was  scornfully  rejected  by  men  of  the  older  gen- 
eration with  the  terse  remark:  **It  is  impossible;  the 
business  has  never  been  done  any  other  way." 

Manufacturers  annually  sailed  the  sea  to  procure 
the  latest  Paris  models;  nothing  else  would  do,  though 
many  were  extreme,  even  bizarre,  and  had  to  be  materi- 
ally changed,  modified  and  adapted;  but  so  long  as  the 
"style"  could  be  put  forth  as  "from  Paris,"  though  only 
a  reflection  of  the  original,  it  was  accepted  by  the  de- 
votees of  fashion,  not  necessarily  as  a  thing  of  beauty, 
but  as  an  "artistic  creation"  devoid  of  the  crudities 

373 


374  TIME'S   CHANGES 

manifest  in  American  productions — and,  of  course, 
"worth  the  difference  in  cost." 

The  importance  of  "keeping  up  with  Paris,"  and 
somewhat  later  and  in  a  lesser  degree,  Berlin,  extended 
beyond  form  or  fashion,  and  embraced  the  fur;  if  silver 
fox,  or  fitch,  or  dyed  rabbit,  or  mole  skin  were  the 
"rage"  at  Paris,  they  at  once  ranked  first  among  the 
articles  in  vogue  in  America.  Some  of  the  furs  that 
were  at  times  the  rage  in  Paris  were  outrageous,  notice- 
ably furs  dyed  green,  red,  yellow,  purple,  and  pink;  but 
they  sped  across  the  ocean  in  response  to  cabled  orders, 
ran  riot  in  favor  for  a  day,  and  were  succeeded  by  some 
other  fad  born  over  night  in  the  gay  capital. 

Time  has  wrought  many  changes;  skins  are  now 
publicly  sold  in  quantity  at  regular  intervals  in  America, 
the  land  of  their  origin,  and  will  continue  to  be  so  sold 
in  all  future  time ;  though  it  is  not  to  be  understood  that 
they  will  not,  as  heretofore,  be  also  similarly  offered 
abroad. 

American  designers  of  styles  are  no  longer  merely 
copyists  or  adapters,  but  are  artistic,  masterful  creators 
of  incomparably  beautiful  apparel,  and  more,  apparel 
combining  beauty  and  utility  in  the  highest  degree. 

Time  has  effected  an  awakening  to  the  fact  that 
among  the  hundred  millions  in  America  the  percentage 
of  fur  wearers  is  vastly  greater  than  it  was  when  the 
population  was  three  million,  or  when  it  had  increased 
to  twenty  times  three  million. 

Time's  changes  are  noted  not  only  in  methods,  prac- 
tices and  rooted  opinions,  but  in  men  as  well.  Men 
erected  buildings  and  named  them  after  themselves; 
struggled,  and  successfully,  to  gain  leadership  and  for- 


TIME'S   CHANGES  375 

tune;  built  and  toiled  and  planned,  as  though  conlfident 
of  living  forever — time  has  swept  away  the  "grand" 
three  or  four-story  structures,  and  in  their  places  has 
arisen  twenty  and  thirty  lofts  piled  one  upon  another; 
and  the  men  themselves  have  passed  on  into  the  great 
beyond  to  give  place  to  the  present,  passing,  following 
procession.  We  are  not  contemplating  time's  changes 
as  wrought  in  the  centuries,  but  as  evidenced  in  less  than 
a  generation — a  lesson  which  it  is  not  wise  to  lightly 
learn.  In  April,  1886,  thirty-one  years  ago,  the  Manu- 
facturing Furriers'  Association  of  New  York  was  or- 
ganized by  the  following  firms : 
John  Ruszits  F.  Booss  &  Bro. 

R.  Prince  Louis  Cohen  &  Bro. 

Lyon  Brothers  Ph.  Weinberg  &  Co. 

Asch  &  Jaeckel  L.  Loewus  &  Co. 

Harris  &  Russak  Chas.  Heidenheimer 

E.  E.  &  B.  Baldwin  Mayers  &  Rab 

Alfred  Muenzer  H.  M.  Silverman  &  Co. 

Moses  Foltz  M.  Bermond 

Maerlender  Bros.  Metzger  &  Schiff 

M.  Stern  Sowdon  &  Bloch 

C.  C.  Shayne  J.  Freystadt  &  Sons 

A.  E.  Harris  Kesner  &  Hall 

Chas.  A.  Herpich  E.  Kolben 

Of  the  above  only  the  following  are  still  living :  E. 
E.  Baldwin,  Hugo  Jaeckel,  Sr.,  Edmond  R.  Lyon,  Louis 
Cohen,  Gerald  Lyon,  and  W.  H.  Freystadt. 

Louis  Cohen  and  Edmond  R.  Lyon  have  retired 
from  the  fur  business.  The  only  firm  still  in  business 
under  the  same  name  is  that  of  J.  Freystadt  &  Sons,  the 
surviving  member  being  W.  H.  Freystadt. 


BISON   HIDE,    LEATHER    SIDE,    ORNAMENTED   BY 
INDIAN  HUNTER 


876 


^bbenbum 


FURS    AND    FUR-BEARERS 


OF 


OTHER  CONTINENTS  AND  COUNTRIES 

AND 

ISLANDS    OF   THE   SEA 

Are  included  in  the  record 
because  ultimately  peltries  of 
every  name  and  clime  are 
measurably    utilized    in    the 

FUR   TRADE    OF   AMERICA  t 


377 


^outi)  Slmerica 


Several  species  of  animals  valued  on 
account  of  their  furry  coats  abound  in  the 
South  American  States,  some  of  which  are 
not  found  elsewhere;  the  number  includes 
the  chinchilla,  otter,  coypu,  fox,  beaver, 
skunk,  wild  cat,  wolf,  weasel,  puma,  jaguar, 
paco,  rabbit  and  hare;  other  animals  not 
'  iA  %  classed  as  furry,  are  the  deer,  elk,  goat  and 
sheep;  the  best,  gauged  by  fur  value,  fre- 
quent mountainous  districts,  or  lakes, 
streams  and  marches. 

CHINCHILLA 

Chinchilla  is  the  most  beautiful  fur  ob- 
tained on  the  continent,  and  in  the  estima- 
tion of  those  to  whom  grey  is  a  preferred 
I  color  is  without  an  equal  regardless  of  the 
country  of  origin;  it  surely  occupies  first 
place  among  furs  in  point  of  delicacy,  being 
as  soft  as  purified  down,  and  as  charming 
in  color  as  the  rose  coming  from  the  same 
creative  hand ;  the  exquisite  greys,  includ- 
ing every  shade  from  the  lightest  to  dark- 
est, are  most  pleasingly  modulated  and  nat- 
urally blended  in  harmonious  and  contrast- 
ing association,  and  no  matter  in  what  form  it  is  made 
up — cape,  collar,  muff  or  border — it  strongly  attracts 
the  attention  of  lovers  of  the  beautiful,  and  aflPords  the 

878 


CHINCHILLA 


utmost  satisfaction  to  the  wearer.  Chinchilla  fur,  which 
is  particularly  suited  to  young  ladies  possessing  ample 
means  to  indulge  in  luxurious  attire,  is  always  used  to 
some  extent,  and  at  times  has  been  extremely  fashiona- 
ble, so  much  "in  style"  that  the  animal  was  nearly  exter- 
minated a  few  years  since,  and  surely  would  have  been 
utterly  destroyed  if  the  government  had  not  intervened 
to  restrict  its  unwise  and  wanton  slaughter.  In  1883 
more  than  two  hundred  thousand  skins  were  offered  at 
the  London  sales ;  during  very  recent  years  the  offerings 
have  been  only  a  fraction  of  that  great  total,  owing  in 
part  to  the  fact  that  as  an  innovation  in  conducting  the 
business  one  leading  New  York  house  made  direct  pur- 
chases in  South  America  to  more  effectively  handle  the 
article  as  a  specialty.  In  1883  best  chinchilla  skins  sold 
in  London  at  eighteen  dollars  per  dozen,  and  early  in  the 
present  century  above  one  hundred  and  twenty  dollars 
per  dozen,  the  great  advance  being  due  to  scarcity  con- 
sequent upon  excessive  slaughter  in  previous  years. 

The  chinchilla,  which  is  very  small,  only  ten  to  four- 
teen inches  in  length,  including  the  tail,  inhabits  sandy 

379 


880  CHINCHILLA 

districts  in  the  mountain  ranges  throughout  Chili  and 
Bolivia,  the  choicest  skins,  gauged  by  purity  of  color  and 
density  of  fur,  being  procured  at  the  greatest  altitudes. 

Until  near  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century  the 
collection  of  chinchilla  skins  in  Chili  and  Bolivia  ranged 
below  two  thousand  dozen  pelts  per  annum,  but  under 
the  incentive  of  the  personal  solicitation  of  an  American 
buyer,  who  was  prepared  to  pay  cash  at  a  higher  figure 
than  had  previously  been  received  by  dealers  and  trap- 
pers, the  annual  collection  amounted  to  approximately 
thirty-six  thousand  dozen  skins. 

Prior  to  1896  the  bulk  of  the  catch  of  chinchillas 
went  to  London  to  be  sold  at  auction,  but  subsequent  to 
that  date  about  three-quarters  of  the  collection  was 
shipped  direct  to  New  York. 

In  September,  191 6,  the  Chilian  government  enacted 
a  law  prohibiting  the  catching,  selling  and  exporting  of 
chinchillas;  this  law  became  effective  March  6,  191 7,  to 
remain  in  force  until  March  6,  1922;  severe  penalties, 
fines  or  imprisonment,  or  both,  are  provided  for  viola- 
tions of  the  law. 

After  March  6,  1922,  it  will  be  permissible  to  catch 
chinchillas,  and  to  sell  and  export  the  skins,  only  during 
the  four  months.  May  to  August,  in  each  year. 

Breeding  chinchillas  is  now  encouraged  by  the  gov- 
ernment of  Chili. 

COYPU 

The  coypu,  next  in  individual  value,  but  exceeding 
the  chinchilla  in  general  utility,  is  a  reddish-brown 
animal  intermediate  in  size  between  the  muskrat  and 
beaver,  inhabiting  the  river  banks  and  low  lands  from 


COYPU— NUTRIA 


Brazil  southward,  though  not  to  the  extreme  southern 
portion  of  the  continent.  A  fully  grown  specimen 
measures,  tail  included,  about  thirty-five  inches  in 
length;  the  animal  was  formerly  very  abundant  in  its 
native  wilds,  but  now  exists  in  only  comparatively  small 
numbers  on  account  of  the  greed  of  Indian  hunters,  half- 
breeds,  or  Gauchos,  and  soldiers  engaged  in  the  numer- 
ous petty  wars,  by  all  of  whom  the  coypu  was  ruthlessly 
slaughtered  in  and  out  of  season  to  secure  the  fairly 
good  price  constantly  ruling  on  account  of  steady  de- 
mand. Hunters  and  trappers  conduct  their  operations 
from  May  to  October,  and  cure  the  skins  in  the  open  air 
in  direct  exposure  to  the  rays  of  the  sun,  thus  reversing 
in  detail  customs  in  fur  trapping  and  handling  in  North 
America,  and  all  cold  sections.  The  hunters  and  trap- 
pers dispose  of  their  skins  to  traders,  who  in  turn  sell 
them  to  larger  collectors  who  annually  visit  the  known 
districts  of  production,  and  by  whom  the  skins  are  baled 
and  shipped  abroad.    Coypu  skins,  like  beaver,  are  quite 

381 


883  COPYU 

often  sold  by  weight;  pelts  of  fair  average  size  weigh 
from  six  to  eight  ounces  each. 

Nutria  is  the  name  by  which  both  the  pelt  and  fur 
of  the  coypu  is  exclusively  designated  and  known  in  the 
fur  and  hat  trades  of  the  world.  Nutria  fur,  natural, 
plucked  uncolored,  and  plucked  and  dyed  black,  is  used 
in  the  production  of  articles  of  wearing  apparel  similar 
to  those  made  of  beaver  fur,  which  in  the  manufactured 
state  it  so  closely  resembles  in  every  particular  that  only 
an  expert  can  surely  state  whether  the  article  is  beaver 
of  medium  grade  or  nutria  of  superior  quality;  the 
difference  in  price  is  marked,  in  durability  comparatively 
slight.  Nutria  fur  ranks  next  to  beaver  in  the  manu- 
facture of  super-fine,  durable  and  costly  soft  felt  hats 
for  men's  wear. 

Interested  persons  in  Philadelphia  and  New  York 
have  made  several  attempts  to  acclimatize  the  coypu,  but 
with  only  temporary  success,  as  the  specimens  procured 
soon  perished  either  from  cold  or  for  want  of  proper 
nourishment. 

JAGUAR 

The  fierce  jaguar  continues  to  exist  in  fairly  large 
numbers  in  the  tangled  forests  of  South  America,  where 
it  will  doubtless  hold  sway  to  the  end  of  time,  as  the 
value  of  the  skin  rarely  suffices  to  induce  indolent  native 
hunters  to  incur  the  toil  and  danger  involved  in  the  pur- 
suit and  capture  of  the  savage  beast. 

The  jaguar  is  somewhat  larger  than  either  the 
Asiatic  or  African  leopard,  which  it  resembles  in  color 
and  general  appearance,  but  from  which  it  noticeably 
differs  in  having  two  or  three  clearly  defined  black  bars 


JAGUAR  88S 

across  the  breast,  and  black  angular  spots,  larger  than 
those  marking  the  leopard,  distributed  over  the  entire 
body. 

The  color  of  the  fur  of  the  jaguar,  other  than  the 
black  spots  and  figures,  varies  from  a  beautiful  golden 
tint,  to  a  deep  shade  of  brown. 

Jaguar  skin  is  used  in  making  neck  pieces  in  various 
designs,  collars,  muffs,  automobile  garments,  and  hand- 
some floor  rugs;  the  article  is  classed  as  "fancy,"  and 
owing  to  small  supply  will  never  have  an  extended  vogue. 

Other  South  American  animals  valued  to  some  ex- 
tent on  account  of  their  pelts,  include  the  paco,  or  vicuna, 
which  is  somewhat  larger  than  the  common  goat ;  it  has 
a  yellowish-brown  coat  of  hair  and  fur,  woolly  in  tex- 
ture, which  is  occasionally  used  by  furriers  as  a  trim- 
ming for  exclusive  garments.  Very  fine  fabrics  are 
woven  from  the  fleece  of  the  paco. 

The  South  American  otter  is  exceptionally  large, 
exceeding  six  feet  in  length,  but  the  fur  is  very  short, 
unattractive  and  of  no  value  to  furriers. 

The  fox,  small  in  size  and  value,  outnumbers  all 
other  fur-bearers  on  the  continent,  and  under  stress  of  a 
strong  demand  has  been  caught  and  marketed  in  large 
numbers. 

These  rather  diminutive  foxes  are  generally  known 
in  the  trade  as  Patagonian  kitt  foxes. 

Lamb  skins,  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of 
coats,  linings,  caps  and  mats,  are  regularly  exported  in 
quantity. 


ISLANDS   OF  THE   SEA 

From  an  unknown  age  in  the  misty  past  down  to 
the  present  day,  fur-bearing  animals  of  many  species 
have  lived  their  lives  of  conflict  preying  and  being  preyed 
upon  in  ceaseless  alternation,  upon  practically  all  the 
islands  of  the  sea  from  the  greatest  to  the  diminutive, 
surviving,  whether  fittest  or  otherwise,  in  spite  of  the 
devouring  fury  of  a  crafty  host,  or  the  effort  to  pre- 
empt their  "place  in  the  sun"  insistently  made  by  man 
with  the  aid  of  traps,  deadly  weapons,  and  trained 
hounds,  hawks  and  leopards. 

#reat  Britain 

Several  species  of  fur-bearing  animals  abounded  in 
Great  Britain,  the  number  including  the  fox,  otter,  wild 
cat  and  others;  owing  to  its  ferocity  and  voracity  the 
last  named  was  systematically  exterminated.  The  fox 
and  otter  remain  in  some  sections,  but  like  the  deer  are 
chiefly  of  interest  to  sportsmen. 

As  early  as  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century 
furs  of  domestic  production  were  generally  worn,  but 

884 


GREAT  BRITAIN  «M 

in  the  reign  of  Edward  III  all  persons  who  could  not 
afford  an  annual  expenditure  of  £  lOO  were  forbidden 
to  wear  furs  in  any  form ;  this  royal  decree  passed  into 
limbo  long  ago,  but  the  effect  is  maintained  by  prevailing 
prices  which  make  it  impossible  for  furs  to  be  worn  to 
any  extent  by  the  man  of  only  a  hundred  pounds  a  year. 

Somewhat  later  a  promising  trade  in  furs  was 
established  between  England  and  Russia,  but  endured 
only  briefly,  as  Queen  Elizabeth  prohibited  the  wearing 
of  imported  furs  in  the  interest  of  the  home  industry — 
and  in  due  course  the  extinction  of  domestic  fur-bearers 
terminated  a  profitable  home  trade. 

Great  Britain,  dating  from  the  chartering  of  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Company  in  1670,  and  particularly  dur- 
ing the  past  one  hundred  years,  has  occupied  a  leading 
position  in  the  fur  business  of  the  world,  not  on  account 
of  production  or  consumption,  but  because  of  the  effi- 
ciency, reliability  and  sound  business  methods  of  the 
merchants  of  London,  through  whose  industry  and  en- 
terprise that  city  became  the  great  center  for  the  receipt 
and  distribution  of  raw  furs,  peltries  of  every  descrip- 
tion, annually  procured  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

The  Hudson's  Bay  Company  collection,  entire  and 
invariably;  peltries  from  the  finest  to  the  cheapest  per 
skin  caught  in  the  United  States  to  the  aggregate  value 
of  millions  of  dollars;  collections  large  and  small,  good 
bad  and  indifferent  from  every  nook  and  corner  of 
Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  South  America,  islands  of  the  sea 
and  both  Poles,  have  annually  been  sent  to  London  for 
distribution  to  points  of  greatest  utility  and  specific  in- 
terest through  the  medium  of  open,  equitable  public  sales 
regularly  attended  by  merchants  of  highest  mercantile 


J8S  GREAT   BRITAIN 

standing  in  every  important  fur  consuming  section  of 
the  universe. 

These  sales  are  held  regularly  in  January,  March, 
June  and  October,  notice  of  exact  dates  of  beginning 
and  closing  being  sent  some  months  in  advance  to  the 
entire  trade ;  for  many  years  fur  seal  skins  were  offered 
at  the  October  sale,  but  subsequently  when  but  compara- 
tively few  buyers  were  interested  in  the  article,  fur  seals 
were  offered  separately  at  a  special  sale  held  annually 
in  December. 

Owing  to  the  European  war  no  sale  was  held  in 
October,  19 14,  and  only  small  collections  were  offered 
in  January  and  June,  191 5 ;  the  October,  191 5,  catalogues 
embraced  full  average  supplies. 

Offerings  in  October,  1917,  comprised:  Muskrat 
400,000,  raccoon  20,000,  skunk  120,000,  opossum  130,- 
000,  mink  15,000,  civet  cat  50,000,  mole  150,000,  fitch 
10,000,  wolf  9,000,  bear  2,500,  fisher  300,  lynx  900, 
otter  300,  beaver  1,200,  ermine  5,000,  red  fox  6,500, 
kitt  fox  8,000,  white  fox  750,  cross  fox  200,  silver  fox 
200,  Australian  opossum  20,000,  wombat  5,000,  stone 
marten  700,  chinchilla  250,  grey  fox  500,  wild  cat  1,000, 
badger  500,  squirrel  200,000,  white  hares  6,000,  mar- 
mot 3,000,  broadtail  i  ,000,  house  cat  7,000,  nutria  8,000, 
hair  seal  200,  wolverine  1 50,  and  sundries. 

While  these  public  sales  afford  merchants  and 
speculators  the  incalculable  advantage  of  securing  at 
most  reasonable  outlay  and  on  equal  terms  furs  of  any 
desired  description,  staple  or  ultra-fashionable,  at  a 
single  center  of  exchange,  the  sales  are  additionally  im- 
portant to  the  trade  at  large  owing  to  the  fact  that  the 


GREAT   BRITAIN  387 

prices  realized  serve  as  a  basis  of  value  for  new  collec- 
tions of  raw  furs  in  countries  of  production. 

Some  seventy-five  years  ago  Mr.  Curtis  M.  Lamp- 
son,  a  native  of  Vermont,  at  that  time  a  young  man,  was 
sent  to  London  by  the  Southwest  Company  to  super- 
vise its  interests  at  the  public  sales  as  then  conducted, 
and  upon  his  reporting  that  the  goods  were  not  manipu- 
lated to  the  best  advantage,  all  subsequent  shipments 
were  consigned  to  him  for  sale  and  distribution  in  ac- 
cordance with  arrangements  which  he  had  perfected  in 
co-operation  with  an  experienced  dealer  and  capitalist, 
,  and  which  resulted  successfully.    Mr.  Lampson  took  an 
active  interest  in  other  enterprises,  private  and  public, 
and  in  consequence  of  important  services  rendered  by 
him  in  connection  with  laying  the  first  Atlantic  cable 
connecting  England  and  America,  he  was  made  a  baronet 
by  Queen  Victoria  in  1866. 

Sir  C.  M.  Lampson  &  Company  for  many  years  re- 
ceived for  public  sale  all  collections  forwarded  to  Lon- 
don from  the  United  States,  smaller  supplies  from 
Russia,  Canada  and  other  places,  and  the  entire  catch 
of  American  fur  seal  skins,  and  though  sales  are  held 
by  a  number  of  brokers,  and  a  few  years  since  two  pro- 
gressive concerns  have  entered  the  field  at  London  as 
public  sale  firms,  the  Lampson  sales  are  still  of  greatest 
magnitude. 


MOLE 

The  mole  is  the  strangest  of  all  fur-bearing  animals, 
not  excepting  the  freaks  of  nature  concentrated  in  Aus- 
tralia, and  has  a  coat  most  nearly  approximating  fur 
exclusively,  the  hairs  in  the  pelt  being  quite  as  fine  and 
soft  as  the  bluish  fur  from  which  they  are  not  dis- 
tinguishable. It  lives  its  life  not  upon  the  earth,  or  in 
air  or  v^^ater,  but  in  the  earth,  occupying  an  excellently 
arranged  dwelling  consisting  of  several  chambers,  gal- 
leries and  comfortable  sleeping  apartments,  all  con- 
structed under  ground  below  the  frost  line ;  tunnels  made 
by  the  mole  radiate  from  its  dwelling  in  many  directions, 
and  at  varying  distances,  through  which  the  animal 
freely  and  speedily  passes  in  quest  of  food,  consisting  of 
grubs  and  bulbous  roots  of  certain  weeds ;  at  times  these 
tunnels  run  sufficiently  near  to  the  surface  of  the  ground 
to  be  plainly  visible  in  the  form  of  continuous  ridges, 
tiny  mountains,  raised  by  the  mole  on  its  foraging  ex- 
cursion along  higher  levels,  frequently  causing  much 
damage  to  fine  lawns,  meadows  and  pasture  fields,  but 
on  the  whole  the  animal  doubtless  does  much  good  in 

388 


MOLE  889 

destroying  vast  numbers  of  noxious  grubs  which  feed 
upon  the  roots,  or  their  Hfe  juices,  of  valued  shrubs  and 
plants. 

The  mole  abounds  in  many  parts  of  the  world; 
numbers  of  particularly  large  and  finely  furred  speci- 
mens are  regularly  obtained  in  Scotland;  several  hun- 
dred thousand  skins  are  oifered  at  a  single  sale  in  Lon- 
don. The  fur  is  dark  bluish-grey,  and  is  at  times  so 
fashionable  that  imitations  are  advantageously  intro- 
duced to  supply  the  special  demand. 

At  the  auction  sale  in  New  York,  October  17,  191 7, 
offerings  in  mole  comprised  71,069  skins,  which  met 
with  a  good  demand;  prices  realized  ranged  from  8^ 
cents  to  343/2  cents,  according  to  quality. 

LONDON,    1917 

Notwithstanding  the  war,  remarkable  activity  is 
shown  in  the  fur  business  at  London;  declared  exports 
to  the  United  States  from  January,  191 7,  to  August, 
191 7,  aggregated  in  value  $4,883,793,  an  increase  of 
$6i2,cxx)  over  the  same  period  in  19 16. 

Sales  of  raw  furs  at  London  from  January  to  June, 
both  months  inclusive,  in  191 7,  comprised:  Muskrat  2,- 
022,250,  American  opossum  738,286,  beaver  3,981, 
skunk  577,536,  raccoon  73,115,  mink  42,129,  red  fox 
12,096,  grey  fox  15,552,  wolf  28,748,  black  muskrat  10,- 
465,  squirrel  646,941,  ermine  21,741,  mole  148,186,  Aus- 
tralian opossum  240,000,  Australian  ringtail  158,384, 
wallaby  207,146,  Russian  sable  467,  and  196  fur  seal 
skins. 


PLATYPUS 


^ugtralta 

Australia,  the  largest  island  of  the  world,  a  near- 
continent  with  an  area  approximating  that  of  the  United 
States,  differs  so  remarkably  from  the  rest  of  the  world 
that  it  need  not  be  considered  strange  that  the  fur- 
bearers  native  to  the  country,  island  if  you  prefer,  are 
peculiarly  Australian,  or  totally  unlike  those  in  any  other 
locality. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  is  the  platypus,  or  duck- 
bill, which  is  classed  by  some  naturalists  as  belonging  to, 
if  not  the  sole  representative  of,  the  lowest  order  of 
mammals,  and  is  a  sort  of  connecting  link  between 
mammal  and  bird ;  it  has  a  full  coat  of  soft  fur  and  hair  ; 
is  similar  to  the  American  beaver  in  form  of  body  and 
tail;  has  a  broad  flat  bill  and  webbed  feet,  in  which 
particulars  it  closely  resembles  the  common  duck;  its 

880 


AUSTRALIA  891 

hind  feet  are  furnished  with  spurs  similar  to  those  on  the 
legs  of  the  game  cock;  a  full  g^own  platypus  measures 
twenty-two  inches  in  length  including  the  tail,  which  is 
four  to  five  inches  in  length  and  covered  with  fur  on  the 
upper  side;  the  animal,  which  is  indigenous  to  New 
South  Wales,  is  amphibious,  and  builds  its  nest  in  the 
dry  banks  of  ponds  and  streams.  The  fur  shades  from 
dark  to  light  brown,  being  darkest  on  the  back,  lightest 
on  the  abdomen  and  silvery  on  the  sides.  Handsome 
collars  and  muffs  are  made  of  platypus  fur;  the  collec- 
tion is  small. 

The  koala  is  an  odd  creature,  found  in  limited  num- 
bers only  in  the  southeastern  section  of  Australia;  the 
animal,  which  is  about  two  feet  in  length,  has  a  dense 
coat  of  soft  fur  of  a  handsome  grey  tone,  diversified  by 
a  reddish  tinge  on  parts  of  the  body.  The  creature  re- 
sembles in  some  respects  several  animals,  and  conse- 
quently is  known  by  various  characteristic  names — Aus- 
tralian bear,  Australian  sloth,  and  Australian  monkey. 
In  a  study  of  the  animals  on  the  great  island  it  becomes 


KANGAROO 


FLYING    SQUIRREL 


apparent  that  in  the  process  of  evolution,  if  they  evolved 
as  claimed,  some  species  must  have  been  in  doubt  as  to 
the  next  best  form  to  assume,  or  element  to  live  in,  and 
while  in  the  throes  of  indecision  have  become  fixed  mid- 
way between  bird  and  mammal,  bear  and  monkey,  a 
mere  dubious  thing  of  land  and  air  and  water,  but  with- 
out a  secure  and  positive  habitat  in  either. 

Dingo  is  the  name  given  to  another  Australian 
animal,  a  species  of  wild  dog  or  wolf,  resembling  both 
in  size  and  general  characteristics,  leaving  the  exact 
classification  in  doubt;  the  skin  is  utilized  in  the  manu- 
facture of  rugs  and  mats.    It  exists  in  large  numbers. 

The  kangaroo  is  another  peculiar  animal  native  to 
Australia;  there  are  several  varieties,  rather  than 
species,  in  this  large  family,  differing  in  size  from  large 
rats  to  giants ;  and  some  having  coats  composed  wholly 
of  short,  harsh  hairs,  and  a  few  being  provided  with  a 
soft  woolly  under  fur  suitable  for  making  small  articles 
of  apparel,  cloak  trimmings  and  rugs ;  pelts  of  the  wall- 
aby, or  rock  kangaroo,  are  marketed  in  large  numbers; 
the  fur  varies  considerably  in  color,  and  includes  rusty 
brown,  black  and  light  shades  of  grey. 

392 


AUSTRALIA  893 

The  wombat,  also  of  doubtful  nature,  resembles 
the  badger  in  appearance,  is  found  in  nearly  all  parts  of 
the  island;  the  long  and  rather  harsh  fur  is  a  pleasing 
grey  mottled  with  black  and  white,  and  is  largely  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  warm,  serviceable  clothing. 

The  red  fox  abounds  in  many  localities,  and  thou- 
sands of  skins  are  annually  exported. 

The  opossum  is  the  most  important  fur-bearer  in 
the  island,  more  than  i  ,400,000  skins  having  been  offered 
in  London  in  a  single  year;  like  all  other  Australian 
animals  the  opossum  differs  in  size,  color  and  general 
appearance,  but  all  have  one  distinguishing  opossum 
feature — the  pouch  in  which  the  very  young  opossums 
are  carried,  and  to  which  they  instinctively  retreat  when 
alarmed.    Pelts  of  the  large  pure  grey  and  the  sooty  or 


WOMBAT 


894  AUSTRALIA 


OPOSSUM 


black  specimens  are  the  best  furred,  have  the  longest 
fleece,  and  rank  highest  in  value;  other  colors  are  dull 
grey,  grey  tinged  with  red  or  mainly  reddish,  and  in- 
definite, mixed  hues;  the  fur  is  used  in  making  ladies' 
and  men's  coats,  neck  pieces,  muffs,  linings,  trimmings, 
children's  sets,  and  carriage  robes,  and  has  usually  been 
in  good  demand  in  Hungary,  Austria  and  Russia  for 
making  warm  coats,  and  more  moderately  in  France, 
England  and  America  for  general  wear.  The  article  is 
made  up  natural,  and  dyed  a  rich  dark  brown  or  lustrous 
black. 

Millions  of  rabbits  are  annually  shot,  trapped  and 
otherwise  secured  in  Australia ;  some  of  these  are  black, 
blue  and  silvery,  and  are  well  furred,  and  are  sold  in 
dozen  lots  as  "furriers'  "  skins ;  the  others  are  packed  in 
bales  and  sold  by  weight  for  cutting,  or  felting  purposes. 


AUSTRALIA  395 

FLYING   SQUIRREL 

The  flying  squirrel  is  about  fifteen  inches  in  length, 
including  the  tail  which  is  six  to  seven  inches  in  length ; 
the  fur  brownish-gray  marked  by  a  much  darker  line  of 
brown  down  the  head  and  spine ;  the  fur  is  soft  and  very 
fine,  and  approaches  white  on  the  under  part  of  the 
body.  A  membrane  extends  from  the  front  foot  to  the 
hind  foot,  and  when  the  animal  desires  to  pass  from  one 
tree  to  another,  or  a  higher  to  a  lower  limb  in  the  same 
tree,  it  spreads  its  feet  and  glides  lightly  through  the 
air.  The  animal  is  found  in  numbers  in  Australia;  a 
few  specimens  are  noted  in  the  United  States.  The  fur 
is  made  up  into  rather  handsome  sets. 

NEW  ZEALAND 
New  Zealand,  comprising  three  islands  in  the  South 
Pacific  Ocean,  has  no  native  fur-bearing  animals,  but 
is  overrun  by  millions  of  rabbits,  descendants  of  a  few 
pairs  introduced  from  Great  Britain  about  fifty  years 
ago — more  than  eight  million  skins  have  been  exported 
in  a  single  year,  with  the  certainty  of  gathering  a  crop 
of  equal  magnitude  the  following  season,  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  the  frightful  slaughter  was  not  due  to  a  desire 
to  obtain  skins  but  to  insure  rabbit  extermination.  New 
Zealand  rabbits  are  somewhat  larger  than  either  the 
European  or  American  species,  colors  being  a  handsome 
grey,  brown,  and  mixed  brown  and  grey ;  the  best  furred, 
winter  skins  are  used  by  furriers;  other  sorts  are  sold 
by  weight  for  cutting ;  skins  of  best  quality,  that  is  best 
furred,  winter  caught,  weigh  from  twenty-four  to  forty- 
eight  ounces  per  dozen;  common  stock  from  sixteen  to 
thirty-two,  and  small  skins  from  four  to  sixteen  ounces 
per  dozen. 


Though  buried  in  snow  and  bound  in  ice  a  con- 
siderable part  of  the  year,  the  large  island,  known  as 
Iceland,  in  the  North  Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  edge  of  the 
Polar  Circle,  supports  abundant  animal  life,  and  con- 
tributes quite  largely  to  the  stock  of  desirable  furs  re- 
quired and  utilized  in  clothing  the  human  race — natives 
of  the  dreary  isle,  and  many  in  milder  climes;  supplies 
in  excess  of  domestic  consumption  are  taken  over  by 
Danish  merchants,  who  have  a  monopoly  of  this  trade. 

Fur-bearers  found  in  Iceland  include  white  bears, 
white  foxes,  white  wolves,  and  snowy  hares,  several 
species  of  hair  seals,  hares  and  foxes,  the  bear  and  rein- 
deer— the  last  and  seals  are  not  furry,  but  the  skins  are 
used  in  making  native  clothing.  Seals  are  of  leading 
importance  for  food,  clothing  and  export,  owing  to  the 
fact  that  they  are  caught  in  largest  numbers. 

Eider  down  is  another  valuable  product  of  the 
island ;  it  is  obtained  by  despoiling  the  nest  of  the  eider 
duck  which  breeds  on  the  small  adjacent  islands,  bays 
and  inlets;  from  five  to  seven  thousand  pounds  of  eider 
down  have  been  collected  annually,  worth  from  two  to 
eight  dollars  per  pound;  the  supply  has  considerably 
decreased. 

GREENLAND 
Greenland,  north  of  North  America,  is  a  good  fur 
country;  the  animals  include  the  Arctic,  blue  and  white 

896 


BSKIMO 


fox,  Polar  bear,  white  hare,  wolf,  reindeer,  common, 
crested  and  other  hair  seals;  some  of  the  Polar  bear 
skins  sent  to  market  measure  about  fourteen  feet  in 
length  by  eight  feet  in  breadth,  and  are  used  in  making 
hall  rugs  of  exceptional  beauty.  The  annual  collection 
of  skins  embraces  several  hundred  fox  and  seal  skins, 
and  from  ten  to  forty  bear  hides. 

All  furs,  skins  and  eider  down  collected  in  excess 
of  the  requirements  of  the  natives,  chiefly  esquimaux, 
are  taken  to  Copenhagen,  Denmark,  and  disposed  of  at 
public  sale  by  the  Royal  Greenland  Company  annually, 
usually  in  November;  in  191 5  the  sale  was  held  on  July 
13,  the  offerings  comprising  1,333  white  and  184  blue 
fox  skins. 

NORTHLANDS 

Spitzbergen,  a  group  of  islands  in  the  Arctic  Ocean 
north  of  Norway,  is  inhabited  exclusively  by  fur-bearers. 
Polar  foxes,  bears  and  reindeer,  which  somehow  manage 

397 


398 


NORTHLANDS 


to  endure  the  extreme  cold  and  survive  the  long  night  of 
four  months,  whalers  occasionally  visit  Spitzbergen,  and 
when  so  disposed  briefly  remain  to  catch  a  few  fearless 
foxes  and  a  bear  or  two. 

Grinnell  Land  is  inhabited  by  hardy  esquimaux, 
musk  oxen  and  foxes,  the  fur-bearers  being  superior  in 
quality,  but  the  pelts  secured  are  almost  exclusively  re- 
quired by  the  natives. 

Lockwood  Island,  80°  24-*  north,  42°  45'  west 
longitude,  the  highest  or  farthest  point  north  reached  by 
Lieutenant  J.  B.  Lockwood,  of  the  Greely  Expedition  in 
May,  1882,  fairly  abounds  in  animals,  foxes,  bears,  lem- 
mings and  ptarmigan,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the 
temperature  falls  to  fifty  degrees  below  zero.  Speci- 
mens, which  were  secured  with  little  difficulty,  were  per- 
fectly furred,  exquisitely  soft,  silky  and  beautiful. 


K 


X 


Many  fur  bearing  animals,  counting  species  and 
peltries,  are  found  in  all  parts  of  Europe ;  some  of  them 
are  individually  valuable  as  fur-worth  is  estimated  in 
the  markets  and  fashion  centers  of  the  world,  and  all  are 
of  intrinsic  value  in  consequence  of  their  great  utility  in 
furnishing  man  with  attractive,  protective  and  comfort- 
able clothing  in  temperate  and  frigid  climes.  Europe  is 
of  leading  importance  as  a  consuming  country  of  excep- 
tional magnitude,  measured  either  by  a  season  or  cen- 
turies; the  continent  is  truly  great  considered  from  the 
standpoint  of  its  large  internal  trade  and  extended  com- 
mercial relations  with  the  entire  outside  world — the  loss 
of  the  fur  trade  of  only  a  part  of  Europe  as  one  of  the 
consequences  of  the  war  beginning  in  19 14,  seriously 
affected  the  business  in  all  other  producing  and  consum- 
ing countries ;  and  the  end  is  not  yet. 

Russia  is  accorded  first  place  in  fur  production 
among  European  countries,  owing  to  the  vast  area,  the 
wild,  rugged  charact«r  of  exceedingly  large  districts, 
and  immense  forests,  affording  favoring  conditions  for 
the  continuous  existence  of  wild  animals  of  many  spe- 

399 


400 


RUSSIA 


cies;  a  considerable  part  of  Russia  remains  in  the  state 
of  original  creation,  uninhabitable  and  therefor  unin- 
habited by  man,  and  consequently  better  adapted  to  the 
life  requirements  and  perpetuity  of  the  lower  order  of 
animals,  particularly  fur-bearers,  than  other  portions  of 
the  globe.  Russia  is  also  an  important  fur  consuming 
country,  the  long  and  very  severe  winters  making  fur 
clothing  generally  essential  for  rich  and  poor ;  many  who 
cannot  afford  even  the  cheapest  furs  wear  sheep-lined 
coats  at  all  times,  the  garments  being  made  to  be  worn 
with  the  woolly  side  next  to  the  person  in  winter,  and  re- 
versed in  summer.  The  fur-bearing  animals  native  to 
Russia  are  important  in  quality  rather  than  in  variety 
of  species,  and  embrace  the  sable,  ermine,  fox,  marten, 
fitch,  squirrel,  beaver,  muskrat,  wolf  and  badger. 

SABLE 

The  most  valuable  of  these,  and  of  all 
pelts,  size  considered,  is  the  Russian  sa- 
ble, in  Russian,  Sobol,  a  member  of  the 
widely  distributed  weasel  family;  it  is 
found  in  Asiatic  Russia,  Siberia  and 
Kamtschatka,  the  finest  being  collected 
at  Yakutsk.  The  sable  varies  in  color 
with  the  changing  seasons;  in  summer 
the  fur  is  reddish  brown  with  a  sprink- 
ling of  grey  hair  about  the  head,  but  in 
winter  it  assumes  a  beautiful  dark  brown, 
deep  plum  or  nearly  black  tone ;  the  dark- 
skins  uniformly  rank  highest  in  beauty 
and  value  in  all  markets  of  the  world.  Selected,  very 
dark  specimens,  known  as  Russian  Crown  sables,  are 


RUSSIAN    SABLE 


nearly  all  retained  in  Russia  to  meet  the  requirements  of 
the  Czar  and  nobility ;  it  has  been  a  courtly  fur  for  sev- 
eral centuries,  and  while  always  too  costly  to  be  a  fad  or 
become  common,  it  has  always  been  fashionable,  rank- 
ing with  gems  as  a  treasure  of  exceeding  worth ;  the  fur 
is  long,  dense  and  remarkably  soft,  and  so  peculiarly 
rooted  in  the  leather  that  it  may  be  brushed  with  the 
hand  in  the  natural  direction,  from  head  to  tail,  or  the 
reverse,  and  it  will  remain  as  placed  without  apparent 
injury  or  loss  of  beauty.  Russian  sable  is  used  in  mak- 
ing cloaks,  wraps,  coat  and  robe  linings,  collars,  muffs 
and  small  articles;  a  lining  for  a  royal  robe  requires 
from  eighty  to  a  hundred  skins  and  may  cost  from  three 
to  thirty  thousand  dollars.  If  the  sable,  which  is  never 
abundant,  was  a  low  priced  fur-bearer,  it  would  seldom 
be  trapped  or  hunted,  as  its  capture  is  attended  with 
many  hardships,  and  even  the  loss  of  human  life,  for  as 
the  fur  is  best  in  the  coldest  months  of  the  year,  and  the 
little  animal  frequents  wild,  desolate  districts  frequently 
visited  by  terrific  snow  storms,  the  life  of  the  sable  hun- 
ter is  fraught  with  strain  and  peril  which  only  the  most 

401 


402  RUSSIAN    SABLE 

Sturdy,  lured  by  the  hope  of  a  rich  reward,  dare  experi- 
ence; every  winter  a  number  of  the  sable  hunters  are 
lost  in  the  deep  forests,  or  perish  in  the  snow. 

For  generations,  too  many  for  memory  to  declare 
the  number,  the  choicest  Russian  sable  skins,  designated 
everywhere  as  "Crown  sables,"  were  reserved  for  the 
royal  family  and  really  rich  nobles;  the  last  and  most 
barbaric  war  toppled  the  "crown"  into  the  morass  of 
vanished  glories,  and  in  passing  terminated  the  regal 
direction  of  a  few  selected  sable  skins,  presumed  to  be 
superior  but  not  too  good  for  czars,  emperors,  courtiers 
and  trailing  inheritors  of  ducats  and  dollars. 

In  1880  very  good  sable  skins  sold  for  five  roubles 
each,  $3.75;  thirty  years  later,  as  the  result  of  an  in- 
creased demand  in  the  United  States,  prices  ranged  up 
to  eight  hundred  roubles,  $600  per  skin. 


ERMINE 

The  stoat  is  another  member  of  the  weasel  family 
which  yields  a  coat  of  royal  fur  known  commercially  as 
ermine.  It  is  a  small  animal,  only  twelve  to  fourteen 
inches  in  length,  of  very  slim  body,  and  consequently 
producing  only  a  small  pelt ;  during  the  spring,  summer 
and  autumn  the  fur  is  a  dull  reddish  brown  and  of  no 
value,  but  in  winter  it  naturally  changes  to  a  creamy  hue, 
and  in  many  specimens  to  pure  white,  except  the  tip  of 
the  tail  which  is  a  clear  black.    The  best  ermine,  both  as 


ERMINE  403 

regards  size  and  quality,  are  annually  procured  in  Rus- 
sia, the  collection  appsoximating  seventy  thousand  skins, 
more  or  less;  the  fur  is  invariably  used  in  lining  large 
coronation  robes  of  emperors,  kings  and  other  royal  per- 
sonages; lining  robes  worn  by  certain  officials  and 
judges;  as  a  compenent  material  of  crowns,  and  in  the 
production  of  opera  cloaks,  wraps  and  smaller  articles 
of  apparel.  The  black  tip  of  the  tail  is  inserted  in  the 
white  ground  of  the  manufactured  fur  at  regular  inter- 
vals with  excellent  effect. 

WOLF 

Although  many  thousands  of  wolves  are  annually 
killed,  the  slaughter  being  conducted  at  all  seasons,  the 
animal  continues  to  abound,  and  it  is  believed  that  more 
than  one  hundred  thousand  wolves  are  still  at  large  in 
Russia.  The  Russian  wolf  is  exceptionally  fierce  and 
voracious,  and  the  animal  most  feared  by  man;  a  large 
number  of  human  beings,  and  countless  domestic  ani- 
mals are  annually  killed  and  devoured  by  savage  Russian 
wolves.  The  fur  of  the  wolf  is  suitable  for  making 
warm  loose  fitting  coats,  ladies'  sets,  and  robes ;  it  was  in 
particularly  good  demand  for  military  uses  in  the 
trenches  and  open  field  work  in  the  great  European  war. 
Methods  of  trapping  wolves  in  Russia  differ  from  those 
pursued  in  other  places ;  the  most  effective  trap  consists 
of  a  large  wooden  pen  provided  with  swinging  doors 
which  can  be  easily  opened  or  closed  by  men  concealed 
nearby;  the  wolves  are  lured  into  the  pen  by  a  trapper 
who  passes  out  at  one  door  as  the  wolves  enter  by  the 
other ;  the  wolves  thus  taken  alive  are  killed  at  the  con- 
venience of  their  captors. 


SQUIRRELS 

The  species  of  squirrels  valued  on  account  of  their 
furry  coats  are  very  numerous  in  all  parts  of  Russia  and 
Siberia;  they  are  larger  than  the  American  squirrels, 
and  are  superior  in  every  respect,  particularly  in  being 
well  furred,  whereas  the  American  squirrels  have  coats 
showing  a  growth  of  short  hair  only;  the  difference  is 
due  to  the  greater  severity  and  length  of  the  Russian 
winters. 

Russian  and  Siberian  squirrels  of  the  same  class 
vary  in  color,  beauty  and  value  according  to  the  districts 
in  which  they  flourish;  those  taken  in  Eastern  Siberia, 
especially  in  the  Amoor  district  and  near  the  sea  coast, 
are  of  superior  size  and  quality,  and  are  known  in  the 
trade  as  Saccamina  squirrels ;  these  are  a  beautiful  dark 
grey.  The  second  grade  is  classed  as  Yakutsky;  skins 
of  this  class  are  dark  grey  and  blue,  of  fair  size,  and  are 
prepared  for  market  in  two  assortments. 

Another  class,  the  third  in  value,  consists  of  small- 

404 


SQUIRRELS  405 

er  skins  which  are  pale  blue,  steely  grey  and  striped,  and 
known  as  Lensky  squirrels,  and  which  are  assorted  into 
four  divisions  according  to  color. 

The  next  mark,  Yeniseisky  squirrels,  of  which  a 
million  or  more  are  secured  each  year,  are  lighter  in 
color,  and  subdivided  into  three  grades. 

Obskoy  squirrels  constitute  the  fifth  class;  they 
are  pale  blue,  very  finje,  and  in  smaller  supply  than  the 
other  sorts. 

Beisky  squirrels,  another  trade  name  for  the  skins, 
are  blue,  small,  and  fairly  good ;  the  annual  collection  is 
large.  There  are  a  few  more  names,  or  assortments,  but 
they  are  of  minor  importance  on  account  of  moderate 
quantity. 

In  addition  to  the  above  marks,  half  a  million  or 
more  small  squirrel  skins  are  annually  collected  at  Arch- 
angel and  in  the  territory  surrounding  Moscow,  and  are 
designated,  Kasan  squirrels;  these  are  quite  generally 
taken  for  home  consumption.  An  incredible  number  of 
squirrel  skins,  six  to  twelve  million,  are  secured  yearly 
in  Russia  and  Siberia,  nearly  half  the  total  catch  being 
exported,  China  and  Europe  constituting  the  best  mar- 
kets. Squirrels  are  caught  in  traps,  but  the  greater  num- 
ber annually  killed  are  shot  with  blunt  arrows  which  do 
not  injure  the  skin  or  fur;  this  latter  method  of  capture 
is  pursued  on  a  large  scale  at  the  beginning  of  the  winter 
season,  at  which  time  the  squirrels  migrate  in  vast 
troops  and  are  consequently  easily  shot  in  great  num- 
bers. 

Squirrel  fur  is  used  in  many  ways,  and  is  a  showy, 
serviceable  article;  it  is  of  special  value  as  a  lining  for 
coats  and  wraps,  and  is  extensively  used  in  this  way  both 


406  -  SQUIRRELS 

at  home  and  abroad,  the  consumption  in  China  being  ex- 
ceptionally large ;  the  fur  is  also  used  natural  in  making 
wraps,  neckwear,  muffs  and  children's  sets,  and  is  dyed 
mink  color  for  similar  manufacture.  Linings  are  made 
of  whole  skins,  backs  only,  or  the  belly  fur  exclusively. 
A  few  linings  are  made  in  Russia  from  the  fur  of  the 
heads  of  the  squirrels,  but  these  are  rather  expensive  on 
account  of  the  labor  cost  in  sewing  the  small  pieces  into 
a  plate  of  lining  size,  from  fourteen  hundred  to  two 
thousand  heads  being  required  to  make  a  single  lining. 

PONY 

Fur  consumption  greatly  increased  toward  the  close 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  consequently  all  furry 
skins,  and  a  few  that  merely  looked  like  fur,  were  requi- 
sitioned to  meet  the  constantly  expanding  demand;  the 
Russian  colt,  killed  almost  immediately  after  birth,  sup- 
plied one  of  these  near-fur  skins.  The  hid^,  called  pony- 
skin  in  the  trade,  was  at  first,  as  a  test,  introduced  in 
small  lots,  but  though  extremely  cheap  met  with  little 
favor  the  skins  earliest  shown  being  flat,  or  short-haired ; 


RUSSIAN    PONY 


PONY  407 

skins  subsequently  offered  were  more  shaggy,  fluffy  or 
curly,  and  when  dressed  were  really  attractive  in  ap- 
pearance and  color.  A  number  were  dyed  black  with 
fairly  good  results,  the  demand  perceptibly  increasing 
until  the  number  of  Russian  ponies  killed  exceeded  one 
hundred  thousand  per  annum.  At  the  outset  of  the  pony 
craze  skins  could  be  bought  in  Russia  for  fifty  to  sixty 
cents  each,  and  when  the  fad  reached  its  height  dressed 
and  dyed  skins  ranged  above  eight  dollars.  Ladies'  long 
black  pony  coats  beginning  around  ten  dollars,  kept  on 
advancing  in  popularity  until  the  selling  price  rose  to 
somewhere  near  a  hundred  dollars ;  choice,  selected  light 
brown  skins  went  much  higher,  some  furriers  asking  two 
hundred  dollars  for  short  coats  of  natural  fluffy  pony- 
skin — the  craze  ended  just  in  time  to  permit  one  crop 
of  ponies  to  mature  for  the  war. 

RUSSIAN    TRADE 

The  fur  business  has  for  centuries  been  important 
and  conspicuous  among  the  industries  of  Russia,  excit- 
ing the  interest  and  attention  not  only  of  merchants  and 
traders,  but  the  government  as  well;  the  territory  for- 
merly known  as  Russian  American  was  taken  possession 
of  by  Russia  solely  on  account  of  the  revenue  derived 
from  the  annual  catch  of  sea  otter  and  seal  skins ;  Russia 
conquered  Siberia  and  held  Saghalien  because  of  the  val- 
uable supplies  of  sables,  foxes  and  other  peltries  col- 
lected in  both  places. 

The  export  trade  of  Russia  is  very  large,  but  the 
greater  part  of  the  annual  collection  of  skins  is  required 
for  domestic  consumption,  as  fur  is  employed  in  the  pro- 
duction of  all  forms  of  apparel. 


408  RUSSIA 

Fur  petticoats  are  quite  generally  worn  in  winter, 
and  are  favorite  wedding  presents  in  certain  social  cir- 
cles, the  quality  of  the  garments  varying  according  to 
the  bride's  station  in  life  and  the  more  or  less  generous 
disposition  of  the  donors. 

Hats  of  sundry  shapes  are  made  of  fur,  particularly 
beaver,  otter,  muskrat,  lamb  and  rabbit  skins,  for  com- 
mon wear.  Trousers,  vests,  undergarments,  and  every 
other  article  of  masculine  and  feminine  attire  are  made 
exclusively  or  in  part  of  fur. 

An  imperial  edict,  dated  November  7,  19 16,  em- 
powered the  Russian  Minister  of  Agriculture  to  create 
on  crown  lands  reserve  areas  for  the  preservation  and 
breeding  of  various  fur-bearing  animals,  and  particu- 
larly sables  in  Siberia. 

LAPLAND 

Lapland,  under  Russian  rule,  is  a  good  fur  produc- 
ing country,  marten,  beaver,  fox,  wolf  and  the  hare  be- 
ing fairly  abundant;  other  animals  of  local  and  trade 
interest  are  the  elk,  goat  and  reindeer.  Laplanders  wear 
fur  clothing  almost  exclusively ;  all  collections  of  peltries 
in  excess  of  home  needs  are  sent  to  Russia. 

Reindeer  skins  are  perfectly  dressed  by  the  Laps, 
and  are  made  up  by  them  into  linings,  called  pijiki  in 
Russia ;  other  articles  of  reindeer  skin  include  long  coats, 
trousers,  and  capes  with  attached  hoods  for  covering 
the  head. 

Reindeer  skins  are  also  very  finely  dressed  in  Rus- 
sia for  coat  linings. 


PAR  DINE    LYNX 


Pardine  Lynx  shows  very  little  change  in  colora- 
tion as  the  seasons  alternate ;  the  fur,  which  is  quite  soft, 
is  reddish  brown  on  the  upper  portions  of  the  body  and  a 
pleasing  white  beneath;  the  black  markings,  many  of 
which  are  circular  spots,  are  distributed  over  all  parts  of 
the  body,  including  the  short  tail. 

It  is  smaller  than  the  Canadian  lynx,  measuring 
twenty-four  to  thirty  inches  in  length ;  the  limbs  are  com- 
paratively long,  consequently  the  animal  stands  rather 
high. 

The  Pardine  Lynx  is  found  in  Europe,  various 
wooded  sections  of  Spain,  Portugal,  and  in  parts  of 
Turkey. 

The  fur  may  be  used  natural  or  dyed  in  making  sets, 
linings  and  robes. 

Stone  marten,  corresponding  in  size  to  the  Canadian 
marten,  is  found  in  Spain,  Germany,  and  other  parts 
of  Europe.  It  is  a  handsome  mottled  brown  and  white 
fur,  and  is  used  in  making  stoles  and  sets. 

409 


(ietmanp 


Fur-bearers  of  comparatively  moderate  individual 
value  continue  to  abound  to  some  extent  in  Germany, 
the  number  including  the  polecat,  badger,  marten,  mar- 
mot, hamster,  and  hare;  the  supply  does  not  even  ap- 
proximate the  demands  of  the  country,  and  consequently 
large  quantities  of  furs  are  imported  from  other  parts  of 
Europe  and  North  America,  as  furs  of  all  kinds,  from 
the  finest  to  the  cheapest,  are  worn  throughout  the  em- 
pire. 

A  number  of  species  of  fur-bearers  formerly  abund- 
ant have  either  ceased  to  exist,  owing  to  the  general  cul- 
tivation of  the  soil,  or  have  sought  safe  retreats  in  the 
wilder  mountainous  districts.  The  wild  cat  continues  to 
exist  in  various  parts  of  Europe,  but  in  comparatively 
small  numbers ;  some  years  ago  heavy  floods  in  Germany 
caused  many  wild  cats  to  vacate  wooded  retreats  where 
their  presence  was  not  suspected  until  thus  strangely  re- 
vealed. Leipzig  is  the  chief  market  of  supply  for  a  large 
number  of  European  furriers  and  fur  merchants,  and 
for  years  past  has  been  an  important  distributing  center 
for  American,  European  and  Asiatic  furs  sent  thither 
to  be  sold  to  visiting  dealers  from  all  parts  of  the  world. 

The  business  at  Leipizg  is  conducted  by  a  number 
of  fur  merchants,  upwards  of  one  hundred,  some  of 
whom  make  a  specialty  of  one  article,  or  deal  exclusive- 
ly in  particular  classes  of  goods,  and  others  conduct  a 
commission  business  only,  buying  for  or  selling  to  for- 
eign houses. 

Leipzig  fur  merchants  have  for  many  years  been 
large  buyers  at  the  regular  London  sales  and  Russian 

410 


GERMANY  411 

fairs,  and  more  recently  direct  purchasers  of  raw  furs 
in  the  United  States.  This  great  business  was  brought 
to  a  standstill  by  the  war  beginning  in  19 14,  imports  and 
exports  ceasing,  and  many  of  those  engaged  in  the  bus- 
iness being  called  to  the  colors — some  never  to  return; 
to  what  extent  the  trade  will  be  resumed  after  the  war 
is  a  question  for  future  decision,  but  it  may  be  unhesi- 
tatingly asserted  that  it  will  be  many  years  in  attaining 
the  former  high  standard  in  volume.  Public  fur  sales, 
differing  little  from  those  held  in  London,  were  in- 
augurated at  Leipzig  in  1875,  and  were  held  twice  annu- 
ally, in  January  and  September,  for  a  period  of  four 
years,  but  as  they  proved  detrimental  in  the  main  to  the 
regular  fur  business  they  were  discontinued. 

Fur  dressing  and  dyeing  are  important  branches  of 
the  Leipzig  trade,  those  engaged  in  both  operations  be- 
ing exceptionally  efficient;  the  dressers  have  handled 
more  than  four  million  squirrel,  three  million  lamb,  about 
three  million  muskrat,  and  thousands  of  beaver,  opos- 
sum, raccoon  and  various  other  skins  in  a  year.  Many 
of  the  best  fur  dyes  originated  in  Leipzig.  Raccoon 
was  first  dyed  black  there  in  1873;  a  large  number  of 
remarkable  imitations  have  been  produced  by  the  more 
efficient  Leipzig  fur  dyers,  whose  trade  extended  to 
every  fur  consuming  country. 

POLECAT-ILTIS 

The  polecat  abounds  in  all  parts  of  Europe ;  the  an- 
imal is  of  moderate  size,  about  as  large  as  the  mink,  and 
is  a  near  relative  of  the  American  skunk,  rivalling  it  in 
point  of  offensive  odor,  and  on  that  account  is  given 
several  suggestive,  if  not  pleasing  titles,  such  as  foul- 


POLECAT— ILTIS 


marten,  foul-cat,  and  a  few  more  of  similar  import; 
these  names  are  applied  only  to  the  animal,  and  are  not 
used  in  the  trade,  the  fur  being  sold  exclusively  under 
the  name  of  fitch.  The  longer  hairs,  which  are  most 
abundant  on  the  back,  are  dark  glossy  brown  or  black, 
and  the  under  fur  is  pale  yellow,  brightening  toward  the 
roots ;  some  specimens  are  very  pale  yellow  approaching 
white. 

A  large  number  of  skins  are  regularly  sold  at  the 
Leipzig  Easter  Fair,  and  the  article  is  generally  popular 
in  Germany  for  the  manufacture  of  linings,  muffs  and 
collars.  The  fur  had  a  fashionable  "run"  in  the  United 
States  in  19 13- 14  for  the  first  time  in  a  number  of  years. 

MARMOT 

Several  species  of  marmot  are  found  in  various 
parts  of  the  world;  the  species  known  as  the  "common 
marmot,"  which  is  the  one  most  largely  used  in  the  fur 
trade,  is  quite  abundant  in  the  mountainous  districts  of 
Northern  Europe;  its  fur  is  greyish-yellow  upon  the 
back  and  flanks,  and  dark  grey,  or  brownish,  on  other 
portions  of  the  body ;  it  is  a  cheap  article,  and  is  used  in 
making  sets  and  coat  linings.    The  marmot  is  a  burrow- 

412 


MARMOT 


ing  animal  and  late  in  September  retires  to  its  under- 
ground den  where  it  remains  during  the  winter. 

HAMSTER 
The  hamster,  a  burrowing  animal,  abounds  in  the 
Hartz  Mountains  and  all  sandy  districts  from  Northern 
Germany  to  Siberia,  the  little  creature  has  a  body  about 
twelve  inches  in  length,  but  many  smaller  pelts  are  mar- 
keted, as  large  numbers  of  half-grown  animals  are  killed 
by  the  hunters.  The  fur  shows  many  colors  irregularly 
distributed;  it  is  reddish-grey  on  the  back,  black  on  the 
flanks  and  lower  parts  of  the  body,  white  and  yellow  on 
the  sides,  shoulders  and  parts  of  the  head,  and  white  at 
the  throat.  Specimens  differ  considerably,  in  some  one 
and  in  others  a  different  dark  effect  being  strikingly 
noticeable ;  a  few  skins  are  entirely  black.  In  some  sec-t 
tions  of  Germany  the  hamster  is  exceedingly  abundant 
and  troublesome  because  of  its  habit  of  carrying  large 
quantities  of  ripened  grain  to  its  burrows  for  consump- 
tion during  the  winter.  At  the  close  of  the  harvesting 
season  farmers  systematically  dig  open  the  dry  sandy 
burrows,  kill  the  hamsters  and  recover  the  grain;  as 

413 


HAMSTER 


much  as  sixty  pounds  of  corn  have  been  found  in  a  single 
burrow,  and  as  more  than  fifty  thousand  burrows  have 
been  opened  in  one  district  alone  it  will  be  readily  per- 
ceived that  many  tons  of  grain  are  recovered.  Each 
hamster  has  a  separate  burrow,  from  three  to  seven 
feet  in  depth,  which  is  ingeniously  constructed  and  di- 
vided into  a  number  of  compartments  connected  by 
small  passages;  there  are  two  entrances,  one  inclined 
and  the  other  perpendicular. 

The  fur  of  the  hamster  is  chiefly  used  for  coat  lin- 
ings ;  the  work  of  sewing  the  separate  skins  into  lining- 
plates  is  done  by  country  women  in  their  homes,  each 
plate  consisting  of  from  sixty  to  seventy-five  skins. 

HARES 

Large  collections  of  hare  skins  are  secured  each  sea- 
son in  Germany,  Russia,  Siberia,  and  many  parts  of  Eu- 
rope ;  full  grown  specimens  are  about  twenty-four  inches 
in  length,  and  are  greyish-brown  mixed  with  yellow  on 
the  upper  portions  of  the  body,  yellowish-white  on  the 
neck,  and  white  on  the  abdomen;  snow-white  hares 
abound  in  Russia,  Siberia,  and  Arctic  regions.  The  fur 
of  the  several  species  is  long,  soft  and  glossy,  and  is  ex- 
tensively used  at  home  and  abroad  in  making  capes  of 
the  coachman  pattern,  sets,  broad  and  narrow  collars, 
and  as  a  trimming  for  embellishing  cloaks  and  costumes ; 

414 


HARES  415 

many  skins  are  dyed  black  or  brown  and  used  as  rather 
good  appearing  imitations  of  higher  cost  furs ;  some  are 
dyed  silvery  in  imitation  of  silver  fox ;  others  are  so  dyed 
that  scattered  small  patches  of  white  fur  remain  un- 
touched by  the  black  dye,  and  are  known  in  the  trade  as 
snowflake  hares.  Brown  and  white  hares  formerly 
abounded  in  Scotland,  but  have  greatly  decreased  in 
number. 

Germany  produces  a  large  supply  of  coney  skins, 
used  at  home  in  making  sets  and  linings,  and  exported  to 
various  countries  for  other  uses. 

After  the  war  German  fur  merchants  will  doubt- 
less devote  increased  attention  to  raising  conies  of  best 
sorts  to  displace  French  skins,  and  meet  an  enlarged  do- 
mestic demand  for  furs  of  low  cost. 

FELINE 

Go  where  you  may,  not  only  in  Germany,  but  to 
every  spot  of  earth  to  which  thoughtless  man  has  passed 
on  before,  you  will  find  the  domestic  cat,  find  it  in  all  cat 
sizes  and  conditions,  possible  feline  and  fearsome  colors, 
moods  and  attitudes.  In  the  minds  of  the  multitude 
there  is  a  profound  conviction  that  the  domestic  cat  ful- 
fills no  grander  or  more  gruesome  destiny  than  that  of 
making  night  hideous  throughout  the  long-drawn  vicis- 
situdes of  its  nine  prorogued  periods  of  existence ;  there 
is  a  contrary  opinion  expressed  by  a  rather  large  minor- 
ity who  have  found  the  furry  coats  of  defunct  toms  and 
tabbies  profitable  and  comfortable,  though  the  latter 
class  of  beneficiaries  have  generally  not  surely  known 
the  real  character  of  the  article,  as  the  finely  dressed  and 
dyed  fur  of  cats  and  kittens  is  sold  under  the  attractive 


416  FELINE 

title  of  genet,  or  other  fair  sounding  names,  to  which 
even  the  most  hopeful  or  visionary  feline  never  dreamed 
of  falling  heir. 

Skins  are  dyed  in  quantity  at  Leipzig  for  barter  at 
the  fairs,  and  to  meet  the  regular  demand.  Russian 
dyers  are  extremely  proficient  in  coloring  cat  fur  either 
a  plain  shade  or  in  imitation  of  other  furs,  and  are  said 
to  be  able  to  effectively  deceive  even  the  Chinese,  who 
are  supposed  to  know  cats — if  anything. 

Feline  fur  is  used  in  Europe  for  coat  linings,  collars 
and  trimmings;  and  in  Russia  for  lining  boots  and 
gloves. 

Some  of  the  inferior  white  skins  are  dyed  in  imita- 
tion of  squirrel  and  other  lining  furs,  but  as  they  are  al- 
ways low  in  price,  and  generally  unattractive  in  appear- 
ance the  deception  is  not  harmful. 

JfrancE 

Fur-bearers  found  in  France  include  the  fox,  mar- 
ten, polecat,  wolf,  bear,  coney,  and  an  occasional  lynx; 
the  number  of  species  is  small,  and  the  individual  skins 
are  all  of  moderate  value. 

The  European  lynx,  the  largest  and  most  beautiful 
member  of  the  lynx  family,  is  now  nearly  extinct,  being 
found  only  in  the  Pyrenees  Mountains,  and  in  very  small 
numbers  in  one  or  two  other  places;  the  long,  lustrous 
fur  is  an  exquisite  chestnut  brown  diversified  with  black. 

Wolves  continue  to  infest  the  forests  of  France  in 
sufficient  number  to  effect  considerable  damage  to  prop- 
erty and  the  destruction  of  domestic  animals;  bounties 
are  paid  by  the  government  for  the  scalps  of  all  wolves 


WOLF 


destroyed,  and  the  amount  thus  expended  indicates  the 
early  extinction  of  the  wolf  in  all  parts  of  the  country. 
Prior  to  1880  professional  wolf  hunters,  known  as 
Louvetiers,  were  employed  by  the  government  to  kill 
the  wolves  abounding  in  the  woodlands  and  open  coun- 
try. The  institution  of  the  Louvetiers,  which  is  of  an- 
cient origin,  has  been  abolished  and  re-established  sev- 
eral times;  through  the  favor  of  Napoleon  I  it  was  re- 
vived after  a  suspension  of  unusual  duration,  and  con- 
tinued to  flourish  until  abolished  by  Louis  Philippe.  It 
obtained  a  new  lease  of  life  under  patronage  of  Napoleon 
III,  but  finally  passed  out  of  existence  at  the  close  of  the 
second  empire. 

Paris  is  the  center  of  the  French  fur  trade ;  the  bus- 
iness at  the  capitol  is  conducted  by  able  merchants  and 
alert  furriers  having  commercial  relations  with  all  parts 

417 


418  FRANCE 

of  the  world  where  high  class  furs  are  used.  For  many 
years  Paris  was  also  the  leading  fashion  center  of  the 
universe,  but  is  less  important  in  this  regard  than  for- 
merly as  many  of  the  Parisian  styles  are  too  extreme  for 
general  adoption ;  it  still  quite  distinctly  leads  in  the  in- 
troduction of  particular  kinds  of  furs,  as  any  article  in 
strong  fashionable  favor  at  Paris  is  certain  to  become 
very  popular  for  a  time  in  other  great  cities. 

CONIES 

About  eight  million  conies,  or  rabbits,  are  annually 
killed  in  France  for  their  flesh  and  fur.  The  French 
conies,  bred  in  captivity,  are  unusually  large  and  well 
furred,  and  on  account  of  more  than  ordinary  care  in 
breeding  and  handling  are  of  superior  quality ;  the  nat- 
ural colors  are  black,  brown,  white,  bluish  grey,  mottled 
black  and  white,  and  sundry  mixed  hues. 

Nearly  all  persons  living  in  country  districts  whose 
homes  include  small  back  yards  or  larger  plots  of  ground, 
breed  rabbits,  usually  only  a  few,  keeping  them  in  boxes, 
barrels  and  coops,  from  which  they  are  rarely  liberated 
even  briefly ;  the  animals  are  well  fed  on  clover,  oats  and 
vegetables,  and  when  ready  to  kill  weight  from  seven  t< 
fifteen  pounds  each ;  the  flesh,  which  is  of  fine  flavor,  is 
generally  worth  about  ten  cents  per  pound,  and  the  skins 
from  five  to  twenty  cents,  according  to  size.  The  skins 
are  bought  up  by  men  who  travel  through  the  country 
collecting  old  rags,  junk  and  bones;  when  these  collec- 
tions are  brought  together  the  skins  are  assorted  accord- 
ing to  size  and  color,  the  large,  perfect  and  fully  furred 
skins  being  best  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  furriers, 
and  the  lower  sorts  for  hatting  purposes. 


CONIES  419 

French  coney  dyers  are  remarkably  proficient,  and 
enjoy  the  reputation  of  producing  many  excellent  fancy 
colors,  and  an  unequaled  black,  deep  and  lustrous,  on 
coney;  the  skins  all  bear  the  special  brands  of  the  indi- 
vidual dyers,  which  are  universally  known.  The  dyers 
are  located  at  Paris  and  Lyons;  one  dyer  at  the  latter 
city  has  a  world-wide  reputation  for  producing  a  supe- 
rior rich  and  brilliant  black  on  native  rabbits  and  par- 
ticularly on  white  Russian  hares. 

Thousands  of  skins  are  dyed  brown;  the  "black 
coney"  and  "brown  coney"  pelts  are  skins  in  the  natural 
state,  that  is  unplucked,  dyed  either  black  or  brown,  and 
while  of  very  considerable  utility,  rank  in  beauty  and 
value  below  skins  upon  which  more  labor  is  expended, 
and  known  as  seal-conies. 

The  choicest  coney  skins,  best  in  fur  and  leather, 
are  plucked  and  unhaired  by  machine  as  carefully  and 
thoroughly  as  the  finest  fur  seal,  and  are  dyed  seal-color, 
practically  black,  and  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
garments  in  prevailing  styles,  and  are  sold  as  electric 
seal,  and  under  other  names  associated  with  the  word 
seal,  which  fur  they  so  closely  simulate  that  only  ex- 
perts can  distinguish  the  one  from  the  other;  it  is  in- 
deed a  perfect  imitation,  and  is  readily  sold  at  a  better 
profit  producing  price  than  is  obtainable  for  many  fine 
furs. 

Silver  rabbits  are  raised  by  nearly  all  small  French 
farmers ;  these  rather  handsome  little  animals  have  also 
been  bred  for  many  years  by  the  Trappists  order  found- 
ed in  1 69 1  near  Mortagne,  Department  of  Orne,  close 
attention  being  given  to  selection  of  stock  to  maintain 
purity  of  color ;  when  born  the  rabbits  are  jet  black  and 


CONEY 


do  not  change  to  silvery  until  they  are  about  three 
months  old.  Silver  rabbits  skins  are  dressed  to  be  used 
natural  in  making  muffs,  collars  and  fine  trimmings. 
Conies  also  abound  in  Spain,  and  the  name  of  the  coun- 
try is  due  to  that  fact,  being  derived  from  the  Phoeni- 
cian, Spaniga,  which  means,  abounding  in  rabbits.  **Bel- 
gian  coney"  consists  mainly  of  fancy  varieties,  and  is 
so  named  on  account  of  being  dressed,  dyed  and  other 
wise  prepared  in  Belgium ;  the  dyers  of  that  country  for 
years  supplied  the  markets  with  black,  brown,  sheared, 
half -sheared  coney,  and  various  imitations  of  finer  and 
more  costly  furs ;  the  more  remarkable  imitations  in  Bel- 
gian dyed  coney  include  tiger,  leopard  and  zebra  effects. 
Alas !  poor  Belgium.  Lissa,  or  white  Polish  conies,  are 
extensively  collected,  bartered,  bought,  sold,  dressed 
and  dyed  and  finished  at  Lissa,  a  town  of  Prussian  Po- 
land, near  the  border  of  Silesia.  There  are  two  assort- 
ments, German  and  Polish,  each  of  which  embraces  a 
number  of  grades ;  the  German  are  the  larger  and  better 
skins;  in  assorting  the  German  division  of  the  Lissa 
conies  the  largest  and  best  furred  skins  are  made  up  in 
packages  of  fifty  skins  each,  tied  with  a  single  cord,  and 
marked  "Russian  conies."  The  next  selection,  accord- 
ing to  size  and  quality,  is  also  put  up  in  packages  of  half 

420 


CONIES  421 

a  hundred  skins,  bound  together  with  two  strings,  and 
therefore  called  Doppelschreinge,  "double-stringed." 

Smaller  and  poorer  skins  are  either  bundled  or 
sewed  into  lining-plates.  Raw  skins  of  the  second  prin- 
cipal assortment,  or  Polish  skins,  are  put  up  in  bundles 
of  sixty  skins,  called  "shocks."  Dressed  skins  with  light 
leather  and  little  fur  are  arranged  in  parcels  of  ten 
skins;  good  white  furred  pelts,  about  thirty,  are  sewed 
together  in  lining-plates,  each  plate  being  of  the  proper 
size  for  lining  a  coat.  Coney  sewers  at  Lissa  make  up 
the  plates  in  sizes  for  coat  linings  of  different  lengths, 
linings  for  high-top  boots,  and  for  many  small  articles ; 
some  of  the  linings  are  composed  of  hundreds  of  small 
pieces  to  avoid  even  a  minimum  waste  of  material. 
Much  of  the  coney  sewing  is  done  by  small  children,  five 
or  six  years  of  age,  who  earn  about  one  dollar  a  week. 

Natural  linings  are  assorted  according  to  color, 
thereby  making  three  classes,  pure  white,  a  lower  grade 
of  white  and  yellow ;  the  linings  are  also  dyed  black,  and 
to  imitate  squirrel  and  ermine. 

ITALY 

Furs  are  fairly  popular  in  Italy,  but  are  not  in  com- 
mon use,  being  regarded  as  luxuries  rather  than  neces- 
saries ;  low  priced  furs,  however,  are  worn  by  many,  and 
are  doubtless  admired  by  all.  Fur-trimmed  garments 
are  popular,  and  measurably  satisfy  the  natural  desire 
for  at  least  a  little  fur  as  an  effective  finish. 

High  grade  furs  are  used  to  some  extent,  but  the 
chief  demand  is  for  medium  and  lower  cost  skins ;  owing 
to  widespread  love  of  the  conspicuous,  cheap  furs  in  high 
colors,  bright  reds  and  blues,  are  at  times  in  good 
request. 


Three  articles  of  interest  to  the  fur  trade — cats, 
lambs  and  geese — are  reared  in  Holland  considerably  in 
excess  of  domestic  needs. 

As  a  fur-bearer  the  Dutch  cat  is  a  pronounced  suc- 
cess; it  is  wonderfully  prolific,  attains  an  extreme  size, 
and  owing  to  an  abundant  fish  diet  develops  a  coat  of 
fur  superior  to  that  of  any  other  "house  cat"  on  earth; 
the  soft,  dense  fur  is  a  handsome  brownish-grey  with 
black  markings,  and  one  skin  is  so  like  another  in  color 
and  quality  that  the  supply  is  available  for  manufacture 
in  the  natural. 

The  mole  flourishes  in  Holland,  and  we  may  as- 
sume that  it  will  not  be  delved  from  the  soil  in  numbers, 
endangering  the  extinction  of  the  animal  while  the  skins 
remain  high  in  price.  Mole  hunters  are  active,  however, 
and  for  some  time  past  have  sent  good  supplies  of  skins 
to  market. 

Holland  annually  produces  about  one  million  lamb 
skins  of  medium  quality,  which  are  used  in  the  produc- 
tion of  clothing. 

Flourishing  goose  farms  supply  the  trade  with 
many  fine  geese  skins,  from  which,  when  properly 
plucked,  we  obtain  the  well-known  fluffy,  beautiful  and 
delicate  white  "swan's  down"  of  commerce. 


422 


Asia,  the  largest  of  the  continents,  is  of  the  highest 
importance  to  the  fur  trade  of  the  world  in  every  respect 
except  the  manufacture  of  high-class  furs;  fur-bearing 
and  near-fur-bearing  animals  abound  in  immense  num- 
bers and  variety  of  species;  collections  of  peltries  are 
counted  by  bales  rather  than  single  skins;  the  manu- 
facture of  cheap  classes  of  skins  by  crude  methods  is 
almost  universally  conducted ;  and  all  the  people,  except 
in  very  limited  southern  districts,  are  fur-clad. 

The  fur-bearers  include  the  sable  and  black  fox  of 
greatest  value,  otter,  ermine,  wolf,  lynx,  marmot,  mar- 
ten, wild  cat,  wolverine,  beaver,  bear,  hare  and  foxes  of 
all  colors;  and  near-fur,  tigers,  leopards,  Persian  and 
Astrachan  lambs,  some  quite  black  and  others  white, 
brown  and  mixed,  Mongolian  lamb,  moufflon  and  hun- 
dreds of  goats  and  kids,  all  of  which  are  utilized  by 
furriers. 

Thibet  goat  skins,  secured  in  large  numbers,  are 
sent  to  market  in  the  natural  state,  and  as  coats,  robes 
and  crosses ;  all  goat  and  kid  skins  are  shipped  to  selling 
markets  in  these  four  forms. 

Caracul — variously  written  carakule,  karakul  and 
caracool — Persian,  astrachan  and  broadtail  (unborn 
Persian  lambs)  are  the  finer  grades  of  lamb  skins,  and 
are  used  in  different  ways,  the  white  and  grey,  natural ; 
and  all,  as  required,  dyed  black ;  the  caracul  and  Persian, 
also  called  Persianer,  are  close  curl,  the  astrachan  open 
curl,  and  the  broadtail  wavy,  or  showing  the  handsome 
weave  effects  noticeable  in  moire  silk. 

Moufflon,  found  in  some  parts  of  Europe  as  well  as 

423 


KOLINSKY 

Asia,  has  long,  soft  hair  and  woolly  undergrowth, 
naturally  dull  white  or  brown ;  it  may  be  dyed  any  color 
desired. 

Caracal,  a  small  lynx,  is  a  handsome  fur  of  a  uni- 
form reddish  brown,  paler  brown  on  the  abdomen,  and 
showing  many  small  dark  brown  or  nearly  black  spots ; 
the  ears  are  black,  to  which  fact  it  is  indebted  for  its 
Turkish  name,  caracal,  meaning  black  eared. 

Angora  goats  abound  in  Asia  Minor,  the  number 
being  estimated  at  three  million;  the  fleece  is  long,  soft 
and  silky,  and  dresses  a  clear  white.  Angora  is  used  in 
the  fur  trade  in  the  manufacture  of  children's  sets,  baby 
carriage  robes  and  for  making  fine  small  rugs. 

Kolinsky,  indigenous  to  Asia,  is  a  small  and  rather 
handsome  fur-bearer,  about  fourteen  inches  in  length, 
and  in  general  form  resembling  the  American  mink  or 
European  marten,  and  is  known  abroad  as  the  Siberian 
sable,  and  also  as  the  Fartar  sable  and  Siberian  marten ; 
the  fur,  however,  is  unlike  that  of  either  the  sable  or 
marten,  being  shorter,  harsher  and  lighter  in  tint  than 
that  of  the  sables,  the  general  color  being  a  bright  golden, 
handsome  shade  of  yellow,  or  brownish  yellow,  quite 
uniform  in  tone  on  all  parts  of  the  body. 

Some  of  the  best  skins  are  found  in  the  govern- 
ment district  of  Kola,  Russia,  and  large  numbers  are 
obtained  in  China. 

424 


ASIA  425 

Kolinsky  is  made  up  natural  or  dyed  mink  color  or 
much  darker  shades  of  brown;  it  serves  excellently  for 
the  production  of  ladies'  coats,  capes,  stoles,  linings  of 
coats,  ladies'  hats,  muffs,  borders  and  trimming. 

Skins  are  offered  in  the  market  with  or  without 
tails;  the  tail  is  covered  with  fur  and  moderately  long 
reddish  stiff  hairs ;  split  tails  make  a  handsome  border  or 
finishing  edge  for  capes,  coats  and  stoles.  The  long 
hairs  in  the  tail  are  used  in  making  artist's  water  color 
pencils  and  other  brushes. 

Tails  may  be  purchased  separately  by  the  timber, 
forty  tails,  generally  for  one  dollar,  sometimes  more,  per 
tail. 


PERWITSKY 


The  perwitsky  is  one  of  the  smallest  fur-bearers 
utilized  by  furriers ;  the  body  approximates  eight  inches 
in  length,  the  bushy  tail  about  five  inches;  looked  at 
"straight  in  the  face"  it  resembles  a  very  small  domestic 
kitten,  but  in  coloring  is  in  a  class  by  itself.  On  the 
back  and  one-half  way  down  the  sides  the  fur,  which  is 
unusually  short  and  in  moderate  quantity,  is  a  pale 
yellow,  profusely  marked  with  blotches,  spots  and  lines 
of  chestnut  brown  hairs;  these  brown  markings  vary 
considerably  in  size,  from  a  few  hairs  to  moderate  sized 
patches.  The  under  one-half  of  the  entire  length  of  the 
body  is  uniformly  covered  with  fur  and  hair  in  a  rich 


426  PERWITSKY 

mahogany  brown;  the  tail  is  of  the  same  dark  brown 
as  the  under  portion  of  the  body. 

The  perwitsky  is  found  in  Siberia,  is  arboreal ;  when 
upon  a  branch  it  is  not  easily  noticed  from  the  ground, 
and  is  not  readily  observed  by  enemies  above  it — its  re- 
markable coloring  is  manifestly  protective.  Annual 
catch  in  some  years  is  fairly  large,  but  is  usually  small. 

Perwitsky  fur,  introduced  in  New  York  some  six 
years  ago  as  a  novelty,  is  used  in  making  coats,  sets  and 
trimmings ;  it  is  at  times  popular  in  Europe  as  a  lining. 

SNOW  LEOPARD 
This  is  one  of  the  handsomest  of  the  leopards ;  the 
fur  on  the  upper  parts  of  the  body  is  grayish,  slightly 
tinged  in  part  with  faint  yellow,  interspersed  with  dark 
broken  to  nearly  black  marks  more  nearly  resembling 
those  on  the  jaguar  than  the  leopard;  the  under  fur  is  a 
clear,  snowy  white.  The  animal  is  found  in  central  Asia, 
and  is  secured  only  in  small  numbers ;  skins  come  to  the 
market  through  the  London  public  sales. 


Hiiitiiiuniiiiitrmtmmmtmmt 


CHINA 


Native  and  imported  furs  of  every  description,  from 
the  cheapest  to  the  most  costly,  have  been  used  as  cloth- 
ing throughout  northern  China  for  many  centuries, 
probably  from  a  period  as  remote  as  the  creation  of  man 
— if  we  may  accept  the  records  of  Chinese  writers ;  it  is 
certain  that  Siberian  and  Russian  collectors  of  fine  pel- 
tries have  for  several  hundred  years  transacted  a  flour- 
ishing trade  with  China,  exchanging  sable,  fox,  squirrel 
and  other  skins  for  tea,  silk,  and  sundry  products. 

The  East  India  Company  conducted  a  large  fur 
business  with  China  from  1600  to  1833,  when  its  exclu- 
sive privilege  of  trading  with  the  country  was  abolished. 
Early  Spanish  settlers  on  the  Pacific  coast  near  the  site 
of  the  city  of  San  Francisco  made  large  shipments  of 
sea  otter,  seal  and  other  fur  skins  to  China  with  very 
satisfactory  results.  The  Russian  American  Fur  Com- 
pany, operating  in  Russian  America,  made  large  ship- 
ments of  sea  otter,  black  and  blue  fox,  beaver  and  other 
high  grade  skins  to  the  empire  where  they  found  a  ready 
and  apparently  unlimited  market. 

For  some  time  past  Chinese  merchants  have  secured 
necessary  supplies  of  furs,  raw,  dressed  and  dyed,  from 
Russian  merchants  at  the  fairs,  English  shippers  and 
Leipzig  dealers ;  all  markets  have  been  unsettled  by  the 
European  war. 

427 


428  CHINA 

Furs  are  seldom  worn  in  the  southern  portion  of 
China,  owing  to  the  mildness  of  the  climate,  but  in 
northern  districts — it  is  a  big  country — heavy  fur  cloth- 
ing is  regarded  as  absolutely  necessary,  not  alone  on 
account  of  the  severity  of  the  winters,  but  owing  to  the 
fact  that  the  dwellings,  which  are  made  of  light  and  very 
combustible  materials,  are  not  provided  with  stoves  or 
other  appliances  for  obtaining  artificial  heating. 

Millions  of  fox,  hare,  rabbit,  goat,  lamb  and  cat  skins, 
and  enormous  quantities  of  cheaper  sorts  of  Siberian 
squirrel  skins,  none  of  which  are  durable  articles,  are 
annually  worked  up  into  coats,  crosses  and  garments  of 
many  names  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  "common 
people";  otter,  sable,  beaver,  marten  and  other  choice 
peltries  are  still  consumed  in  quantity  by  persons  of 
larger  means. 

The  "heathen  Chinee"  may  be  peculiar  in  many 
ways ;  he  is  a  shrewd  dealer,  a  careful  buyer,  and  is  fully 
awake  to  the  "tricks  in  trade"  practiced  by  his  white 
brethren,  and  is  ever  ready  to  match  them  with  a  few  of 
his  own;  he  may  be  deceived  into  accepting  a  Russian 
dyed  rabbit  as  a  rare  article  worth  a  yen  instead  of  only 
a  few  cash ;  but  in  turn  he  can  darken  a  fifty  dollar  sable 
so  that  it  will  pass  as  a  two  hundred  dollar  pelt,  and  not 
be  "found  out." 

Moths  destroy  furs  in  China  as  easily  as  they  do  in 
New  York,  and  to  insure  their  protection  against  both 
moths  and  thieves  at  a  mere  nominal  charge,  wise  China- 
men entrust  their  furs  in  summer  to  the  care  of  pawn- 
brokers, who  realize  that  they  must  deliver  the  goods  in 
perfect  order  on  demand,  or  lose  their  advances. 

Graft  is  not  unknown  in  official  life;  the  govern- 


WEASBIi 


ment  is  a  large  purchaser  of  furs  for  military  purposes, 
and  some  of  the  purchasing  agents,  usually  mandarins 
and  high  officials,  have  entire  rooms  filled  with  fine  furs 
paid  for  by  government  money. 

Fur  constituted  a  considerable  part  of  the  loot  ob- 
tained by  the  allies  sent  to  China  to  crush  the  Boxer  up- 
rising; members  of  the  royal  family,  nobles  and  rich 
persons  had  large  stores  of  fine  furs  at  Peking,  most  of 
which  were  carried  away  by  invaders  of  the  white  race 
presumably  intent  upon  protecting  missionaries. 

A  few  species  of  fur-bearing  animals  continue  to 
exist  in  the  mountains  and  forests  of  China,  the  only 
districts  not  densely  populated  by  man;  these  embrace 
the  fox,  weasel,  otter,  wild  cat,  civet  and  tiger. 

Domestic  animals  valued  on  account  of  their  furry 
coats  abound ;  the  cat  is  exceedingly  common,  and  its  fur 
is  extensively  used  in  making  warm  clothing  for  the 
poorer  people ;  goats  and  sheep  are  bred  to  meet  a  similar 
but  larger  demand,  and  provide  a  surplus  of  about  one 
hundred  thousand  skins  for  export  each  year,  the  prin- 
cipal foreign  markets  being  Russia  and  the  United 
States. 

North  China  tiger  skins  are  very  fine  in  fur,  color 
and  size ;  skins  received  at  New  York  have  measured  up 
to  sixteen  feet  from  tip  to  tip,  and  when  mounted  as  hall 
rugs,  head  and  feet  complete,  have  sold  for  more  than 

429 


four  hundred  dollars  each.  Chinese  hunters  almost  in- 
variably remove  and  retain  as  trophies  the  claws  of 
tigers  caught  by  them,  but  occasionally  permit  the  claws 
to  remain  in  return  for  a  few  more  "cash" — a  very  small 
Chinese  coin. 

Chinese  civet  is  much  larger  than  the  American 
specimen,  ranging  in  length  up  to  thirty-four  inches,  ex- 
clusive of  the  furry  tail  which  is  eight  to  ten  inches  long, 
and  clearly  ringed  in  black  and  white.  It  is  generally 
similar  in  marking  to  the  American  civet,  but  the  white 
portion  of  the  fur  is  chiefly  in  spots  and  cross-section 
lines,  instead  of  lengthwise  figures.  Good  coats  and 
sets  are  made  of  the  fur. 

Many  weasel  skins  are  procured  in  China;  full 
grown  specimens  are  nearly  as  large  as  the  American 
mink ;  the  fur  is  a  pale  yellow ;  it  is  used  as  a  lining)  for 
making  sets,  coat  collars  and  trimmings,  and  is  generally 
dyed  mink  color. 

Leopard  cats;  these  are  designated  as  "leopards," 
because  the  light  brown  fur  is  profusely  dotted  with 
small  black  spots;  and  "cats"  on  account  of  the  size,  in 
which  particular  they  are  comparable  to  the  American 
domestic  cat.    These  pelts  are  used  in  making  children's 

430 


CHINA  4S1 

sets,  larger  sets  to  some  extent,  and  for  coats  and  linings. 
Ringtails;  these  are  about  thirty  inches  in  length, 
not  counting  the  tail,  and  are  of  slight  build,  "open" 
skins  being  approximately  eight  inches  wide;  the  tails 
are  ten  to  fourteen  inches  in  length,  and  are  marked 
with  alternate  rings  of  black  and  white  fur.  Fur-bearers 
with  caudal  appendages  of  this  character  are  almost  as 
abounding  in  China  as  human  queues — and  doubtless 
more  practical. 

Pahmi — this  name  was  seemingly  given  to  the  help- 
less fur-bearer  as  a  title  pleasing  to  delicate  ears,  in  the 
same  polite  spirit  in  which  for  many  years  skunk,  the 
fur  only,  was  presented  in  the  marts  of  its  nativity  as 
American  sable. 

In  earlier  years  the  pahmi  was  known  in  China 
and  to  foreign  traders  as  the  "Ningpo  Rat/'  a  compre- 
hensive name,  as  the  animal  abounds  in  the  Yangste 
Valley,  the  rivers  and  marshes  within  a  fairly  large 
radius  of  Ningpo,  Central  China. 

The  pahmi,  full  grown,  is  close  to  sixteen  inches  in 
length,  and  has  a  short  furry  tail  five  inches  long;  the 
color  of  the  fur  is  a  light  brown,  with  a  small,  narrow 
white  mark  on  the  crown,  which  in  some  specimens  ex- 
tends nearly  to  the  shoulder ;  fur  on  the  under  portion  of 
the  body  is  white,  the  white  mark,  however,  is  only  a 
narrow  line  directly  in  the  center ;  the  top  hair  is  some- 
what silvery,  and  the  ground  fur  is  yellowish  in  tone. 

The  annual  collection  of  pahmi  skins  approximates 
two  hundred  thousand,  of  which  from  fifty  to  one  hun- 
dred thousand  skins  have  been  annually  exported  to 
America  in  recent  years ;  the  fur  has  long  been  popular 
in  Europe  in  the  manufacture  of  collars  and  cufifs  in  lieu 


432  CHINA 

of  otter,  which  it  resembles  in  appearance  and  strength 
of  leather.  Pahmi  fur  is  used  in  China  in  making 
crosses,  in  which  form  it  is  worn,  and  various  small 
articles  including  trimmings.  In  the  United  States  it 
is  used  natural,  or  "in  hair,"  principally  as  an  imitation 
of  otter.  Skins  are  worth  "round"  fifty  cents  each  in 
the  raw. 

The  Chinese  are  not  only  hunters,  barterers,  traders 
and  wearers  of  furs,  but  are  also  efficient  dressers  and 
dyers  of  skins  of  every  kind  required  in  their  domestic 
and  export  trade;  the  latter  branch  of  the  business  is 
conducted  by  English,  German  and  American  merchants 
located  in  greatest  number  at  Shanghai,  Tientsin  and 
Hong  Kong. 

5apan 

Japan  furnishes  limited  supplies  of  furs  of  fine 
quality  and  medium  grade;  the  indigenous  animals 
valued  for  their  furry  coats  are  the  fox,  weasel,  badger, 
marten,  bear,  hare,  wild  dog  and  tailless  cat;  on  the 
smaller  islands  off  the  mainland  supplies  of  sable,  fox, 
sea  otter,  fur  seal  and  land  otter  skins  are  obtained. 
Japanese  hunters,  conducting  their  operations  in  small 
sailing  vessels,  at  times  secure  very  valuable  collections 
of  sea  otter,  fur  seal,  sable  and  fox  skins  at  or  near  the 
Kurile  Islands  in  the  North  Pacific  Ocean,  for  which 
there  is  always  a  good  demand,  in  part  for  the  home 
trade,  but  more  largely  for  export. 

These  small  vessels,  with  their  crews,  are  not  infre- 
quently lost  in  violent  storms  at  sea,  or  dashed  to  pieces 
on  some  rocky  island  shore. 

Deer  are  fairly  abundant  in  Japan,  and  with  rare 


JAPAN  433 

exceptions  are  smaller  than  those  found  in  other  coun- 
tries; in  some  parts  of  the  empire  they  are  regarded  as 
sacred  and  are  carefully  protected. 

SIBERIA 

Fur-bearing  animals  of  more  than  ordinary  beauty 
and  value  inhabit  all  parts  of  Siberia,  and  excellent  col- 
lections of  superb  peltries  are  annually  secured  by 
assiduous  hunters  and  trappers,  many  of  whom  are 
wholly  dependent  upon  their  catch.  These  collections 
include  sables  of  finest  quality,  which  are  secured  in 
fairly  large  numbers  each  season,  and  for  which  there 
is  an  ever  ready  market  at  high  prices;  the  black  fox, 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  all  fur-bearers,  is  found  in 
Siberia;  the  collection  is  small,  but  the  skins  command 
extreme  figures,  up  to  three  hundred  dollars  each. 
Hares  of  good  size  are  abundant,  and  are  specially  im- 
portant to  the  natives  whom  they  supply  with  food, 
clothing  and  cash. 

Large  snow-white  hares  are  plentiful  in  many  sec- 
tions; the  fur  is  long  and  soft,  and  is  used  in  the  trade 
in  the  natural,  dyed  black,  brown  and  silvery,  and  as 
imitations  of  finer  furs. 

The  largest,  best-furred  and  most  handsome  squir- 
rels abound  in  eastern  Siberia,  and  the  skins  are  exported 
In  large  lots. 

PERFUME 
Scent  from  the  pouch  of  the  civet  cat,  Asiatic  and 
African  specimens,  forms  the  base  of  sundry  perfumes ; 
nearly  $150,000  worth  of  the  material  was  exported  to 
the  United  States  in  19 16. 


/      KAMTSCHATKA 

Sable  skins,  of  which  from  three  to  five  thousand 
are  annually  collected  by  experienced  hunters  in  Kamt- 
schatka,  constitute  the  most  important  product  of  the 
peninsula;  the  skins  are  disposed  of  to  local  merchants, 
mainly  foreigners,  in  exchange  for  various  commodities 
transported  thither  for  the  purpose. 

Sea  otter,  fox,  beaver,  seal,  bear  and  land  otter 
skins  are  similarly  secured  and  bartered. 

The  reindeer  abounds  and  is  highly  prized  by  the 
natives  for  food  and  clothing.  Since  the  conquest  of 
Kamtschatka  by  Russia  in  1706  a  regular  tribute  in  furs 
has  been  paid  to  the  Russian  authorities  at  Irkutsk. 

The  sea  bear,  so  named  on  account  of  its  size  and 
appearance,  is  found  in  large  herds  at  Kamtschatka  and 
the  Kurile  Islands ;  it  measures  from  seven  to  eight  feet 
in  length,  and  has  an  abundant  undergrowth  of  rather 
soft  fur,  or  wool,  reddish-brown  to  lighter  brown  in 
color;  the  long  hairs  are  plucked,  and  the  under  woolly 
coat,  designated  in  the  trade  as  wool-seal,  is  occasionally 
used,  natural  or  dyed,  in  making  novelty  trimmings. 


484 


Fur-bearing  animals,  ranging  in  size  from  pigmies 
to  monsters,  frequent  the  hills  and  vales  of  Africa,  but 
as  the  elevated  temperature  prevailing  throughout  the 
year  in  most  parts  of  the  continent  is  not  conducive  to 
the  development  of  a  dense  and  durable  under-fur, 
only  a  few  native  species  are  provided  by  nature  with 
coats  suitable  for  the  production  of  the  protective  cloth- 
ing required  in  colder  countries;  in  their  native  land, 
however,  these  more  or  less  furry  skins  are  generally 
appreciated  and  quite  extensively  used  as  ornamental 
additions  to  the  rather  meagre  tribal  costumes.  African 
hunters,  chieftains  and  warriors  are  very  proud  of  their 
crudely  prepared  tiger,  leopard  and  other  pelts  worn 
pendant  down  the  back  as  manifest  tokens  of  their 
prowess. 

The  list  of  African  animals  utilized  in  the  fur  trade 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  embraces  the  fox,  marmot, 
caama,  fennec,  civet,  genet,  tiger,  leopard,  wolf,  cat, 
hare,  bear,  gazelle,  ounce,  rabbit  and  one  species  of 
monkey. 

The  genet,  found  in  South  Africa,  has  a  moderately 
good  coat  of  fur,  generally  grey  with  yellow  or  clouded 
white  markings  and  many  dark  spots ;  the  tail  is  marked 
with  rings  of  alternate  black  and  white  fur;  genet  is 

435 


FKNNEC 


used  by  furriers,  chiefly  abroad,  in  making  boas,  linings 
and  trimmings. 

Civet.  This  animal  abounds  in  Northern  Africa 
and  is  persistently  hunted  for  its  fur,  and  the  perfume 
it  carries  in  a  small  glandular  pouch.  The  fur,  which  is 
rather  long,  is  handsomely  marked  with  unevenly  dis- 
tributed patches  of  black  and  white  hairs.  Small  parcels 
of  civet  fur  are  used  in  Paris,  London  and  other  cities 
for  trimming  garments,  and  making  boas  and  muffs.  A 
perfume  similar  to  civet  is  obtained  from  the  rasse,  a 
Javanese  animal. 

Caama.  Also  called,  asse,  is  a  South  African  ani- 
mal of  the  fox  tribe,  and  the  smallest  known  member  of 
the  family;  its  downy  yellowish-grey  fur  always  com- 
mands a  ready  sale  at  prices  sufficiently  remunerative 
to  induce  a  small  number  of  hunters  and  trappers  to  de- 
vote much  time  to  its  capture.  Owing  to  the  diminutive 
size  of  the  animal  a  considerable  number  of  pelts  are 
required  to  line  a  cloak,  and  as  the  demand  always  ex- 
ceeds the  supply,  a  caama  lining  is  a  luxury  obtainable 
only  by  a  few  wealthy  persons. 

Fennec — is  the  English  name  of  another  small  ani- 
mal, somewhat  similar  to  the  caama,  inhabiting  several 
districts  of  Africa,  especially  Egypt  and  Nubia.  It  is 
about  twenty  inches  in  length,  including  a  very  bushy, 

436 


FENNEC 


437 


fox-like  tail.  Marked  differences  are  noted  in  the  color 
of  the  f ennec ;  usually  the  fur  is  of  a  pale  fawn  tint,  but 
at  certain  seasons  blanches  to  a  creamy  white.  The  fur 
is  wonderfully  soft  and  warm,  and  so  highly  esteemed 
by  the  richer  classes  that  the  entire  collection  is  regu- 
larly required  for  domestic  consumption. 

Leopard.  The  fur  of  the  leopard  when  in  perfect 
condition  is  extremely  brilliant  and  gaudy ;  it  is  generally 
marked  with  ten,  and  occasionally  twelve,  lines  of  irreg- 
ularly shaped  black  or  very  dark  brown  spots  extending 
from  the  head  to  the  tail ;  the  color  of  the  fur  between 
the  spots  varies  from  nearly  clear  white  to  dark  brown ; 
skins  showing  light  golden  tints  are  considered  most 
beautiful,  and  are  preferred  by  furriers  in  producing 
stylish  collars,  muffs,  trimmings  and  occasionally  full 
depth  coats  either  for  street  or  auto  wear.  The  article  is 
used  to  a  larger  extent  in  making  floor  rugs  with  mount- 
ed heads  or  half-heads. 

Jackal.  A  limited  number  of  jackal  skins  from 
South  Africa  are  offered  from  time  to  time  at  the  Lon- 
don sales  of  mixed  furs ;  this  species  of  jackal  is  found  at 


L.BOPARD 


438  JACKAL 

the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  in  the  contiguous  districts ; 
it  is  larger  than  the  common  fox,  and  has  a  moderately 
dense  coat  of  black  and  white  over-hairs,  divided  by  a 
distinct,  dark  line  extending  down  the  spine  from  the 
head  to  the  tail ;  the  skin  is  lined  with  plush,  felt  or  cloth, 
and  is  used  as  a  sleigh  or  carriage  robe  or  hall  rug. 

MONKEY 

The  skin  of  one  species  of  African  monkey,  the  black 
colobus,  is  at  times  manufactured  by  European  and 
American  furriers  as  a  novelty;  nearly  fifty  thousand 
skins  have  been  used  in  a  year. 

The  monkey  has  no  fur ;  only  the  shoulders  are  fair- 
ly but  not  densely  covered  with  long  and  glossy  black 
hairs,  forming  on  the  body  of  the  monkey  a  covering 
strikingly  resembling  a  coachman's  cape;  but  as  the 
monkey  wore  it  first,  the  charge  of  appropriating  an 
original  style  will  lie  against  the  coachman,  but  not 
against  him  only  as  thousands  of  ladies  have  also  adopt- 
ed the  fashion  with  manifest  satisfaction. 

Monkey  skin  as  apparel  is  unquestionably  an  orig- 
inal style,  remotely  original,  for  very  learned  men  as- 
sure us  that  it  was  worn  in  warmest  Africa  ages  before 
man  happened,  for  man  did  happen  as  is  clearly  proven 
by  the  voluminous  theory  of  evolution,  a  process  plainly 
axiomatic  and  therefore  independent  of  corroboration, 
which  is  non-existent. 

Once  upon  a  time — the  esoteric  period  in  which  all 
legendary  events  have  had  their  genesis — a  monkey  was 
evolved  into  a  man;  how  many  monkeys  suffered  this 
humiliating  transformation  or  transmigration  is  not 
stated,  and  the  number  may  therefore  be  regarded  as  an 


UNCLE 


immaterial  detail ;  it  is  certain,  however,  that  evoluting 
was  considered  humiliating  to  the  simian,  which  became 
so  distraught  by  the  deeds  and  assumptions  of  the  new 
biped  that  it  promptly  estopped  further  evolving — hence 
we  have  the  monkey  with  us  "even  unto  this  day." 

Man,  though  knowing  from  whence  he  came,  but 
not  being  able  to  unravel  the  secret  of  how  to  do  it,  has 
not  evolved  backward  or  forward,  but  has  been  content 
to  multiply  merely  as  man,  and  seek  f  orgetf  ulness  in  mi- 
gration; but  now  and  then  Dame  Fashion  stirs  within 
him  painful  memories  of  the  long  ago,  for  as  he  dons 
thoughtlessly  purchased  coats  or  capes  of  monkey  skin 
and  realizes  that,  "according  to  information  and  belief," 
the  garments  are  made  of  the  hairy  cuticle  of  devoted 
ancestors,  he  must  be  well  nigh  overwhelmed  in  grief. 
To  one  not  wholly  hardened  by  the  lapse  of  time  the  con- 
templation of  wraps  made  from  the  epidermis  of  human- 
ity's prototype  must  be  an  exceedingly  poignant  experi- 
ence ;  grandparents  many  times  removed,  revered  uncles, 

439 


440  MONKEY 

aunts  and  beloved  cousins  innumerable  pass  in  review 
and  thrill  the  imagination  as  one  garment  after  another 
is  fondled  and  reluctantly  tried  on.  From  1850  to  1900, 
African  hunters  sent  to  market  2,733,163  black  monkey- 
skins  to  be  converted  into  stylish  capes,  collars  and  trim- 
mings for  the  adornment  of  winsome  posterity,  a  large 
proportion  of  the  collection  being  required  in  the  United 
States. 

Since  that  unknown  era  in  which  he  descended  from 
a  monkey,  man  has  achieved  marked  progress  in  me- 
chanical efficiency,  scientific  attainments,  and  greatness 
in  his  own  opinion;  failure,  however,  to  rightly  appre- 
hend his  origin  plainly  proves  that  he  descended,  really 
came  down,  and  will  remain  in  the  depths  until  he  real- 
izes that  no  matter  how  many  times  man  has  made  a 
monkey  of  himself,  God  never  created  a  monkey  in  order 
that  he  might  therefrom  evolve  a  man. 

SPOTTED  RINGTAILS 

The  spotted  ringtail,  called  a  cat  because  it  is  re- 
lated to  the  felines,  is  about  thirty-five  inches  in  length 
including  the  tail  which  is  some  seventeen  inches  long, 
marked  with  alternating  rings  of  black  and  dingy  white, 
eight  of  the  rings  being  black.  Fur  on  all  parts  of  the 
body  is  dotted  with  nearly  circular  black  spots  about  one- 
half  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter ;  the  fur  is 
soft  and  fairly  abundant. 

Pelts  of  the  spotted  ringtail  in  the  natural  state 
make  good  coat  linings,  or  sets  for  ladies  and  children 
who  like  odd  things;  dyed  it  may  be  used  in  various 
ways.  Spotted  African  ringtails  are  a  novelty  for  the 
American  market;  the  supply  is  not  large. 


BLACK  COLOBUS 

The  Black  Colobus,  shown  above,  is  the  African 
monkey  whose  hirsute  cuticle  is  utilized  in  the  fur  trade. 
When  a  few,  very  few,  monkeys  committed  the  foolish 
fault  of  changing  to  humans,  it  is  a  moot  question 
whether  they  became  men  or  women ;  it  is  certain,  how- 
ever, that  the  hairy  hides  of  the  monks  "become"  women 
only,  as  men,  though  not  adverse  to  monkey-shines,  have 
€ver,  instinctively  it  may  be,  refused  to  be  appareled  in 
monkey  skin. 

441 


Jfairg 


In  the  earliest  period  of  the  trade  the  skins  of  fur- 
bearing  animals  caught  in  more  or  less  extended  sec- 
tions of  country  lacking  transportation  facilities,  were 
brought  together  at  certain  season  for  barter  and  distri- 
bution at  fairs.  Though  wonderful  progress  has  been 
made  in  dressing,  dyeing  and  manufacturing  furs,  orig- 
inal methods  of  handling  raw  skins  still  prevail  in  many 
places,  or  have  been  abandoned  only  in  part,  reluctantly, 
or  by  force  of  circumstances.  There  are  places  where 
it  is  still  possible  to  secure  furs  of  superior  quality  in 
exchange  for  trinkets  of  small  value ;  rather  large  collec- 
tions of  raw  furs  are,  "even  unto  this  day"  and  as  of  old, 
sent  to  London  and  Leipzig  to  be  sold  publicly  or  pri- 
vately to  merchants  in  the  countries  of  origin,  including 
the  United  States  and  Canada;  and  fairs  are  held  as  of 
yore,  and  are  regarded  as  essential  centers  of  distribu- 
tion. 

NIJNI  NOVGOROD 

The  Mackary  Fair,  undoubtedly  the  greatest  fair 
of  the  present  day,  is  held  annually  at  Nijni  Novgorod, 
Russia,  beginning,  officially,  on  August  6,  St.  Mackary's 
Day,  and  continuing  to  September  6;  the  fair  is  named 
after  its  patron  saint,  and  the  monks  of  St.  Mackary 
formerly  derived  a  large  revenue  from  the  institution  in 
duties  imposed  on  the  goods  brought  forward  for  barter 
and  sale;  the  duties  were  long  since  taken  over  by  the 
government,  though  dignitaries  of  the  church  continue 
to  officiate  in  the  interesting  ceremonies  inaugurating 
the  fair  each  year.    Nijni  Novgorod,  famous  chiefly  on 

442 


FAIRS  443 

account  of  the  fair  held  there  annually  for  many  hun- 
dreds of  years,  is  situated  upon  a  hill  rising  rather  ab- 
ruptly from  the  plain,  near  the  confluence  of  the  Volga 
and  Oka  Rivers,  and  is  a  very  attractive  city  during  the 
gala  period  of  the  fair ;  it  is  estimated  that  two  hundred 
thousand  persons,  busy  merchants,  dealers  and  specula- 
tors of  all  civilized  lands  attend  the  fair,  bring  forward 
for  exchange  furs,  tea,  silk,  wool,  hides  and  other  prod- 
ucts and  manufactured  goods;  these  articles  are  dis- 
played in  large  warehouses  and  some  three  thousand 
shops,  one-story  buildings  of  wood  and  brick  erected  in 
rows  along  straight  streets ;  many  of  these  shops  are  un- 
occupied during  half  the  year,  but  all  are  needed  for  the 
fair.    Every  precaution  is  taken  to  avoid  a  conflagration 
— a  trench  filled  with  water  from  the  river  runs  through 
each  street;  no  one  is  allowed  to  light  a  fire  or  even  a 
candle  in  any  of  the  shops;  and  special  watchmen  are 
constantly  on  duty.    A  large  part  of  the  business  trans- 
acted is  effected  by  barter,  goods  from  one  country  be- 
ing exchanged  for  those  from  another ;  business  is  con- 
ducted slowly,  methodically  and  in  calm  disregard  for 
the  value  of  tirne;  values  are  to  a  certain  extent  regu- 
lated by  supply  and  demand,  but  each  merchant  or  trader 
values  his  own  goods  independent  of  market  quotations, 
and  as  it  "takes  two  to  make  a  bargain,"  not  only  hours 
but  days  are  sometimes  consumed  in  completing  a  single 
transaction — vain  efforts  to  obtain  two  dollars*  worth 
of  goods  for  a  hundred  cents,  or  two  dollars  for  mer- 
chandise worth  half  that  amount. 

Furs  offered  at  the  fair  are  collected  from  all  parts 
of  the  universe,  ranging  in  grade  from  Siberian  sables 
to  European  hares ;  the  articles  brought  forward  in  larg- 


444  FAIRS 

est  number  are  squirrel  skins,  up  to  two  million ;  hares, 
half  a  million,  and  lamb  skins,  seven  hundred  thousand. 

IRBIT 

Another  Russian  fair  of  special  interest  to  the  fur 
trade  is  held  annually  in  February  at  Irbit,  capital  of  a 
district  of  the  same  name,  on  the  Rivers  Irbit  and  Nitza, 
near  the  Ural  Mountains.  Furs  to  the  value  of  more 
than  two  millions  dollars  are  offered  at  this  fair  in  small 
buildings  erected  for  the  purpose,  about  thirty  thousand 
European,  Asiatic  and  American  merchants  attending 
as  buyers.  The  furs,  being  winter  caught,  are  of  excel- 
lent quality,  and  include  very  fine  sable,  fox,  bear,  ko- 
linsky, wolf,  wolverine,  and  three  to  four  million  Siber- 
ian squirrel  skins,  and  sundry  European  and  American 
articles.  During  the  day  the  merchants  visit  the  shops 
for  the  purpose  of  examining  the  goods  and  comparing 
prices,  but  exchanges  or  purchases  are  rarely  effected 
until  evening,  when  buyers  and  sellers  assemble  at  their 
hotels  for  dinner,  which  is  the  most  important  event  of 
the  day;  those  gathered  about  the  tables  are  seemingly 
engaged  solely  in  a  feast  of  good  things,  but  as  a  matter 
of  fact  each  one  is  exercising  to  the  utmost  his  business 
skill,  wit  and  wisdom  to  effect  exchanges,  sales  and  pur- 
chases so  as  to  get  **the  best  of  the  bargain." 

At  the  Irbit  Fair,  July,  191 7,  competition  was  strong 
though  prices  ruled  high;  offerings  comprised  the  fol- 
lowing skins:  Badger,  3,000;  house  cats,  50,000;  ermine, 
120,000,  which  brought  from  83  cents  to  $1.86;  Russian 
iltis,  fitch,  140,000;  cross  fox,  500;  white  fox,  7,500,  sell- 
ing at  $12.86  to  $14.27;  silxer  fox,  100,  of  which  ^he 
best  brought  $857.00;  red  fox  from  various  sections, 


FAIRS  445 

8,000;  grey  fox,  2,500;  kolinsky,  60,000;  lynx,  500; 
baum  marten,  2,000;  Russian  mink,  2,000;  sables,  1,500, 
brought  from  $25.00  to  $128.00;  wolves,  1,000;  bears, 
300;  Mongolian  foxes,  700,  brought  from  $4.86  to  $6.86; 
otters,  200;  wolverine,  300;  dog  skins,  4,000,  and  2,075,- 
000  squirrel  skins. 

LEIPZIG 

Important  fairs  have  been  held  annually  at  Leip- 
zig, Germany,  for  nearly  six  centuries.  These  fairs, 
three  in  number,  are  attended  by  merchants  and  manu- 
facturers from  Germany,  Russia,  Greece,  Hungary, 
Turkey,  Denmark,  Sweden,  England,  France,  Italy  and 
America,  who  visit  the  fairs  as  buyers  and  sellers — eith- 
er to  purchase  furs  produced  in  lands  other  than  their 
own,  or  to  sell  their  native  products  in  an  open  market. 

The  bulk  of  the  raw  and  dressed  skins  thus  ex- 
changed or  sold  is  taken  for  actual  consumption ;  but  in 
instances  large  parcels  of  lamb,  squirrel,  hare  and  other 
peltries  are  purchased  for  speculation. 

Russians  have  usually  been  the  largest  buyers. 

The  New  Year  Fair,  first  of  the  three,  is  held  in 
January. 

The  Easter  Fair,  which  is  of  leading  importance  to 
fur  merchants,  occurs  immediately  after  the  sacred  fes- 
tival from  which  it  derives  its  name,  and  usually  opens 
in  April.  Large  lots  of  furs  purchased  at  the  London 
March  sales,  and  direct  shipments  from  the  United 
States,  are  sold  at  the  Easter  Fair  to  German  and  other 
manufacturers. 

The  Michaelmas  Fair,  last  of  the  three,  is  held  in 
September.    The  great  European  war  has  adversely  af- 


446  FAIRS 

fected  all  these  fairs,  owing  to  bad  business  conditions  in 
all  markets,  and  the  evident  inability  of  foreign  mer- 
chants to  attend  or  forward  goods  for  purchase  and 
sale. 

Hamb  ^Uni 

A  large  quantity  of  lamb  skins  of  various  kinds  and 
sizes  is  regularly  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  arti- 
cles of  winter  apparel  throughout  the  world;  many  of 
these  skins  are  marketed  through  the  great  Russian 
fairs,  others  are  shipped  to  London  for  sale  in  the  raw, 
and  smaller  lots  are  sent  direct  to  consuming  centers,  or 
are  converted  into  clothing  at  the  sources  of  produc- 
tion. All  are  handled  in  the  fur  trade  owing  principally 
to  the  fact  that  they  are  made  up  with  the  fleece  on  the 
skin,  in  the  same  manner  as  furs,  instead  of  the  methods 
usually  pursued  in  the  manufacture  of  wool.  Several 
million  skins  are  annually  collected  and  consumed ;  these 
skins  vary  in  size,  color  and  texture;  the  greater  num- 
ber are  white,  many  are  light  grey,  mixed  grey  and 
white,  and  some  are  black;  in  some  specimens  the  wool 
is  tightly  curled,  in  others  open  curled,  crinkled  or 
straight ;  certain  diminutive  specimens,  found  largely  in 
Asia,  are  generally  admired.  Lamb  skins  are  known  in 
the  fur  trade  by  the  following  names : 

Persian  lamb,  Persians  or  Persianer;  these  have 
closely  curled  wool  on  all  parts  of  the  pelt,  and  are  made 
up  natural  or  dyed  a  lustrous  blue-black ;  the  article  is  at 
times  extremely  fashionable  for  ladies'  coats,  capes, 
children's  garments  and  headwear ;  some  consumers  re- 
gard selected  Persians  as  superior  in  beauty  to  any  fur 
except  sable ;  it  has  no  rival  as  a  mourning  "fur." 


>vi«Bttii.-.ii'%t^t  via 


PERSIAN   LAMB 


Half -Persians  are  a  lower  grade  of  skins  of  the 
Persian  class,  and  are  well  adapted  for  making  capes, 
linings  and  caps. 

Large  collections  of  Persian  lamb  skins  are  regu- 
larly offered  at  the  fair  at  Nijni  Novgorod,  and  are  sold 
in  bale  lots  for  dressing  and  dyeing  at  Leipzig,  where 
the  finishing  processes  have  been  conducted  for  many 
years ;  many  skins  are  dyed  in  Russia,  where  the  article 
is  extensively  used  in  making  garments,  linings,  and  also 
for  military  collars  and  caps;  in  recent  years  Persians 
have  been  finely  dyed  in  Greater  New  York. 

Broadtail,  made  up  into  costly  garments,  is  a  lamb 
skin  showing  a  beautiful  wavy  pattern,  similar  to  moire 
silk. 

Astrakhan,  or  Merluschka,  Iamb  skins  are  collected 
in  quantity  at  Muraschkino,  Russia,  and  are  forwarded 
to  the  fairs  by  Russian  and  Persian  merchants ;  some  are 
dressed  at  the  stated  center  of  collection,  Moscow,  Ka- 
san  and  other  Russian  cities.  As  compared  with  Per- 
sians the  wool  is  longer  and  much  more  "open"  in  curl ; 
fickle  fancy  alternately  favors  Persians  and  Astrakhans, 
and  prices  vary  accordingly. 

447 


448  LAMB   SKINS 

Krimmer,  a  handsome  grey  Iamb  skin,  closely  re- 
sembles Astrakhan,  but  many  specimens  are  more  tight- 
ly curled ;  it  is  very  handsome  made  up  natural  for  chil- 
dren's sets,  caps,  linings  and  trimmings. 

Ukranean.  Skins  obtained  chiefly  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Kiev,  Russia;  mainly  consumed  at  home,  but  a 
small  quantity  is  exported. 

Caracule  or  Caracool,  is  a  handsome  figured  skin, 
much  admired  in  ladies'  garments ;  it  is  beautifully  curled 
when  taken  from  very  young  animals,  those  only  a  few 
days  old,  and  is  an  excellent  natural  black. 

Moufflon — is  long  in  fleece,  handsome  in  natural 
white,  or  dyed  brown  or  black. 

Mongolian  is  a  moderate  priced  skin;  it  is  warm, 
soft  and  quite  durable. 

English  and  Scotch  lambs,  when  properly  dressed 
and  dyed,  resemble  the  finer  Persians,  and  are  pleasingly 
bright  or  lustrous. 

Crimea — lambs  having  fine  curly  wool  abound  in 
the  Crimea,  European  Russia,  and  always  command  a 
good  price  at  home  and  abroad. 

South  American  or  Buenos  Aires  lamb  skins,  are 
used  in  making  or  lining  coats,  military  headwear,  rugs 
and  other  articles ;  they  are  about  fifty  per  cent  cheaper 
than  the  English  and  Scotch  brands;  the  yearly  collec- 
tions exceeds  a  million  skins. 

These  and  a  few  other  less  important  "sorts"  of 
lamb  skins,  sheep  skins  from  China,  and  kid  skins  from 
many  parts  of  Asia,  are  regularly  required  by  ladies  of' 
fashion  in  Europe  and  America,  men  of  moderate  means 
and  poor  people  in  many  parts  of  Europe  and  all  Asia. 


Buffalo,  bear,  wolf,  goat  and  other  large,  strong  and 
heavy  pelted  skins,  while  used  as  furs  in  the  production 
of  various  articles,  are  specially  adapted  to  the  manufac- 
ture of  sleigh  and  carriage  robes,  which  is  a  separate 
branch  of  the  fur  business ;  these  skins,  and  additionally 
the  complete  pelts  of  the  tiger,  leopard,  lion,  puma,  jack- 
al, Polar  bear  and  a  few  others  make  attractive  hall  and 
parlor  rugs  and  mats.  Higher  cost  carriage  and  sleigh 
robes  are  made  of  fur  seal  natural  or  dyed,  beaver,  rac- 
coon, fox,  fawn,  wolverine,  musk  ox,  marten,  and  other 
furs,  either  in  regular  "stock"  or  on  special  order,  always 
affording  the  consumer  greater  comfort  and  satisfac- 
tion than  robes  of  other  materials,  however  expensive. 

BUFFALO 

For  many  years  the  American  buffalo,  properly  bi- 
son, furnished  the  chief  supply  of  warm,  serviceable  and 
durable  sleigh  robes,  but  greedy  tongue  and  hide  hunters, 
and  reckless  slaughterers  who  claimed  to  be  sportsmen, 
unitedly  destroying  the  animal  at  the  rate  of  nearly  half 
a  million  a  year,  wantonly  wasted  a  valuable  asset  of  the 
country,  and  practically  exterminated  one  of  the  most 
interesting  animals  in  all  creation,  and  which  was  first 
seen  in  the  wild  state  by  white  men  about  the  middle  of 
the  sixteenth  century. 

During  the  winter  of  1844-45  the  large  open  section 
of  country  known  as  the  Laramie  Plains,  a  favorite  win- 
ter resort  of  the  buffalo,  was  visited  by  a  severe  snow 
storm  which  continued  until  the  entire  district  was  bur- 
ied in  snow  to  a  depth  of  about  four  feet;  during  the 

449 


450  ROBES   AND   RUGS 

Storm  thousands  of  buffaloes  were  trampled  to  death  in 
their  mad  struggle  to  escape,  and  many  more  died  of 
starvation;  a  large  number,  however,  survived,  but  only 
to  later  encounter  a  destroyer  more  cruel  than  nature. 
The  buffalo  has  not  been  seen  on  the  Laramie  Plains 
since  that  fatal  winter.  Prior  to  1850  vast  herds  of 
buffalo  frequented  the  plains  of  Texas,  and  all  of  the 
great  tracts  of  level  land  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
to  the  Missouri  and  Mississippi  Rivers,  but  all,  except  a 
few  in  captivity,  have  passed  over  the  border  into  hap- 
pier feeding  grounds  of  the  race.  For  several  consecu- 
tive years,  beginning  1850,  a  collection  of  from  one  hun- 
dred and  forty  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  buffalo 
hides  was  marketed  at  St.  Louis  alone,  and  other  large 
lots  were  shipped  direct  to  New  York  and  Chicago;  in 
1859  the  collection  centering  at  all  places  approximated 
two  hundred  thousand  hides;  in  1877  about  two  hundred 
thousand  buffalo  were  killed  for  their  hides  in  the  single 
State  of  Texas ;  the  following  year  the  supply  from  all 
sources  reached  a  total  of  only  one  hundred  and  twenty 
thousand  hides  of  all  sizes,  and  in  subsequent  seasons, 
down  to  1883,  the  collection  averaged  one  hundred  thou- 
sand hides  per  annum;  from  that  date,  which  was  the 
last  great  year,  the  decline  in  quantity  was  very  pro- 
nounced, and  before  1890  the  last  small  collection  had 
been  garnered,  and,  except  a  little  herd  in  Yellowstone 
Park,  the  American  bison  had  ceased  to  exist  as  a  wild 
animal. 

The  last  lot  of  buffalo  hides  received  at  New  York, 
about  eight  hundred,  was  purchased  by  a  sleigh  robe 
manufacturer  at  eight  dollars  each,  and  after  making 
them  up  into  robes — a  single  hide  finished  natural  or 


ROBES   AND   RUGS  451 

lined  with  felt  constituted  a  robe — sold  them  at  first  at 
fifteen  dollars,  later  at  twenty-five,  fifty  and  sixty-five 
dollars  each,  and  the  last  pair  at  one  hundred  and  twen- 
ty-five dollars  each.    In  the  early  history  of  the  trade 
buflfalo  hides,  according  to  size  and  condition,  were 
worth  from  one  to  three  dollars  each  in  the  raw.    In  the 
trade  buflFalo  hides  were  classed  as  "Indian-handled,"  or 
dressed,  or  "whiteman  dressed,"  the  former  for  many 
years  rating  as  the  better  hides.    Indian  squaws  of  sev- 
eral tribes,  particularly  the  Crows,  were  efficient  dress- 
ers of  buffalo  hides,  the  work  being  done  by  them  with 
the  brains  of  the  animal  and  certain  juices  known,  in  this 
connection,  only  to  themselves;  the  leather  of  hides 
dressed  in  this  way  was  white,  clean  and  soft.    Some  of 
the  Indian-handled  hides  were  smoked;  these  were  also 
pliable,  but  dingy  on  the  leather  side.    Hides  of  the  buf- 
falo, mountain  sheep,  deer  and  elk  dressed  by  Indians 
always  retain  their  soft  finish;  and  when  wet,  or  even 
soaked  in  water,  do  not  dry  out  hard  or  harsh.    Many 
of  the  Indian-handled  hides  were  ornamented  on  the 
leather  side  with  crude  outline  sketches  in  red  and  yel- 
low pigments;  these  highly  colored  pictures,  also  the 
work  of  the  squaws,  represented  some  event  in  the  life 
of  individual  braves,  or  the  history  of  the  tribe. 

Some  of  the  light-leathered  hides  were  used  in  mak- 
ing men's  coats  for  service  in  the  colder  sections  of  the 
West  and  Northwest ;  owing  to  the  low  cost  these  coats 
were  also  popular  with  car  drivers  and  truckmen  as  far 
East  as  Boston. 

During  the  period  of  abundant  buffalo  life  from 
twenty  to  thirty  thousand  hides  were  secured  each  year 
in  Canada,  mainly  through  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company. 


452  ROBES   AND   RUGS 

A  few  small  herds  remain  in  captivity ;  the  largest,  about 
325  head,  is  on  the  Indian  Reservation  in  Montana;  a 
herd  of  about  150  near  Fort  Pierre,  South  Dakota ;  about 
50  in  a  privately  owned  park  at  Cardigan,  Minnesota; 
Yellowstone  Park  about  75;  Goodnight  ranch,  Texas, 
about  52;  and  smaller  numbers  at  Denver  and  New 
York.  There  is  a  herd  of  wild  buffalo  near  Great  Slave 
Lake,  and  a  few  in  captivity  at  Winnipeg,  Canada. 

BEARS 

Superior  robes  and  rugs  are  made  of  bear  skins, 
including  the  black,  white,  brown  and  grey  specimens. 

The  black  bear,  a  native  of  North  America,  has  very 
glossy  hair  and  a  good  coat  of  soft  under  fur;  during 
the  first  year,  or  "cub"  period,  the  fur  of  this  species  of 
bear  is  gray,  and  does  not  take  on  the  clear  black  hue 
until  the  animal  is  nearly  two  years  old;  the  black  bear 
sheds  its  coat  twice  a  year,  and  for  all  commercial  pur- 
poses the  fur  is  in  its  best  condition  early  in  the  winter, 
or  before  the  bear  has  slept  in  it  for  four  months,  more 
or  less.  As  the  black  bear  is  hunted  all  the  time  for  its 
pelt,  fat,  flesh  and  the  bounty  paid  in  some  States  and 
counties  it  will  soon  become  extinct. 

The  cinnamon  bear  found  in  Alaska  is  of  great  size, 
and  its  skin  makes  a  rug  suitable  only  for  the  excep- 
tionally large  rooms  in  castles  and  modern  mansions; 
the  government  protects  the  animal  by  wise  laws,  but  it 
is  too  big  to  long  survive  the  destruction  wrought  in 
open  seasons. 

The  Polar  bear,  which  is  fairly  well  distributed  over 
the  Arctic  regions,  is  also  of  extreme  size;  specimens 
captured  have  measured  nearly  fourteen  feet  in  length 


ROBES   AND   RUGS  453 

by  five  feet  in  height,  and  weighing  two  thousand 
pounds.  The  Polar  bear  has  a  dense  coat  of  very  long 
silvery  or  pale  yellow  upper,  or  "water-hairs,"  six  inches 
or  more  in  length,  and  a  good  growth  of  fur  on  all  parts 
of  the  body,  including  the  soles  of  the  feet ;  extra  large 
pelts  with  the  skin  of  the  head  and  feet  in  perfect  con- 
dition for  mounting,  bring  extreme  prices — the  annual 
collection  is  small. 

The  grizzly  bear  of  North  America,  is  another 
giant,  attaining  a  length  of  more  than  eight  feet,  and  a 
height  of  four  feet,  and  weighing  up  to  one  thousand 
pounds;  the  long,  rather  harsh  fur  is  a  dingy  brown 
sprinkled  with  white,  producing  a  grizzled  effect ;  the  cub 
is  brown  only ;  collection  small,  about  three  hundred,  and 
declining.  The  grizzly  is  occasionally  seen  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  but  is  more  generally  met  west  of 
that  range,  and  as  far  as  the  Pacific  coast. 

Brown  bears  are  found  in  the  mountains  and  heavy 
timber  lands  of  Europe  and  Asia ;  their  fur  is  usually  of 
medium  quality,  and  is  used  in  making  heavy  coats.  The 
Syrian  bear,  varying  from  dingy  white  to  brownish-grey, 
according  to  the  age  of  the  individual,  has  a  smooth 
soft  fur ;  collection  is  small,  and  all  used  abroad. 

Bear  skins  are  not  exclusively  used  as  robes  anc? 
rugs,  but  are  freely  employed  in  making  coats,  collars, 
borders  for  garments,  and  headwear. 

Many  of  the  soldiers  of  ancient  Rome  when  going 
into  battle  wore  pieces  of  bear  skin  over  their  helmets  to 
g^ve  the  wearers  a  ferocious  appearance;  the  custom, 
less  the  ferocity  aspect,  remains,  members  of  "crack" 
English  regiments  and  the  "Old  Guard"  of  New  York, 
when  not  in  battle,  wear  large  and  lofty  hats,  called 


464  ROBES   AND   RUGS 

shakos,  made  of  black  bear  skin.  In  recent  years  shakos 
have  been  made  of  black  dyed  hare  skins,  in  imitation  of 
bear ;  the  hare  fur  is  lighter  in  weight,  cooler  and  much 
cheaper — and  nearly  as  imposing. 

WOLVES 

Man  and  wolf  have  been  at  war  from  the  beginning 
and  though  the  battle  has  never  ceased,  the  wolf  which 
has  all  the  while  been  limited  to  original  methods  and 
facilities  for  attack  and  defense,  has  continued  to  exist 
in  considerable  numbers  and  many  places,  particularly 
Asia,  Northern  Europe,  Western  and  Northwestern 
sections  of  North  America.  Edgar,  who  became  King 
of  England  in  958,  compelled  the  people  of  Wales  to  pay 
an  annual  tribute  of  three  hundred  wolf  heads,  instead 
of  money ;  and  during  his  reign  criminals  condemned  to 
death  were  pardoned  if  they  were  able  to  prove  that 
they  had  benefitted  the  community  by  having  killed  a 
stipulated  number  of  wolves. 

Other  Kings,  and  English,  French,  Spanish  and 
Russian  nobles  have  repeatedly  sought  to  hasten  the  ex- 
termination of  the  wolf  by  offering  bounties  for  its  de- 
struction. 

The  wolf,  in  spite  of  all  persecution,  continued  to 
exist  in  rather  large  numbers  in  Scotland  until  the  mid- 
dle of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  other  sections  of 
Great  Britain  to  a  much  later  date. 

The  fur  of  the  wolf  is  grey  sprinkled  with  black, 
being  darkest  or  nearly  black  on  the  back,  brownish- 
grey  on  the  sides  and  nearly  white  on  the  under  por- 
tions of  the  body ;  the  tail  is  bushy.  In  southern  sections 
of  the  United  States  the  species  of  wolf  most  abundant 


COYOTE 


is  deep  black  or  brownish-black;  other  black  wolves  are 
found  in  the  Arctic  regions.  The  large  timber  wolf  is 
much  lighter  in  color,  and  in  many  instances  the  white 
fur  predominates,  and  is  long  and  glossy. 

The  prairie  wolf,  or  coyote,  abounds  on  the  prairies 
west  of  the  Mississippi  River,  has  a  yellowish-grey  coat 
rather  handsomely  marked  with  irregularly  distributed 
dashes  of  black  hairs.  Northern  skins  are  best  furred, 
most  durable  and  of  greatest  value. 

Wolf  skins  make  exceptionally  handsome  robes  and 
desirable  rugs,  and  owing  to  the  increased  demand  for 
furs  in  recent  years  have  been  more  largely  used  in  mak- 
ing ladies'  fur  neckwear  and  muffs,  for  which  purposes 
they  are  dyed  either  black,  blue,  taupe  or  brown. 

Skins  of  the  Esquimaux  wolf  dog,  which  closely  re- 
sembles the  wolf,  are  used  to  some  extent  in  robe  manu- 
facture. Robes  are  lined  with  plushes,  cassimeres,  felts 
and  woolen  fabrics.  Rugs  are  usually  finished  with 
mounted  heads. 

Mounted  lion  skins  make  handsome  rugs. 

455 


The  angora  is  the  handsomest  and  most  valuable 
member  of  the  goat  family ;  its  long,  silky,  snow-white 
fleece  is  extensively  used  in  England  in  the  manufacture 
of  delicate  fabrics  and  costly  shawls,  and  in  the  United 
States  in  the  production  of  plushes  in  imitations  of  some 
of  the  most  popular  furs. 

Trimmings,  baby  carriage  robes  of  exceptional 
beauty,  rugs  and  mats  are  made  of  Angora  skins  pro- 
cured in  Spain,  France,  the  western  part  of  the  United 
States,  and  Angora,  a  small  district  of  Asia  Minor. 

Some  very  fine  robes,  rugs  and  articles  of  Indian 
clothing  are  made  of  Rocky  Mountain  goat  skins;  the 
hair  and  wool  of  this  wild  goat  are  long,  soft  and  gener- 
ally white,  though  it  varies  somewhat  in  color  with  the 
change  of  the  seasons.  Very  large  supplies  of  goat 
skins,  suitable  for  robes,  rugs,  coats  and  smaller  arti- 
cles, are  regularly  collected  in  Asia,  Africa  and  parts  of 
Europe ;  skins  secured  at  Cape  Town,  and  in  eastern  and 
western  provinces  of  Africa,  are  of  good  size,  best  sorts 
weighing  from  fifty-six  to  sixty  pounds  per  dozen ;  they 
are  sold  by  weight  at  the  London  sales. 

The  skin  of  the  Chinese  goat,  considered  as  a  robe 
and  rug  pelt,  greatly  surpasses  the  others,  both  in  point 
of  utility  and  number,  for  consumption  in  the  United 
States;  while  these  Chinese  goat  skins  are  nearly  uni- 
form in  size  they  differ  much  in  color,  some  being  so  dark 
as  to  be  classed  as  black,  others  are  fine  bluish-grey,  clear 
white,  grey  marked  with  patches  of  black  or  brown,  or 
a  reddish  tinge  on  parts  of  the  pelt.  A  number  of  se- 
lected skins  are  regularly  dyed  black  by  silk  dyers  at 

466 


GOATS  457 

Lyons,  France ;  the  color  produced  by  the  silk  dye  is  deep 
and  lustrous;  commoner  grades  are  dyed  black  in  the 
United  States  for  robe  and  rug  manufacture.  Natural 
skins,  robes,  plates  and  rugs  are  sold  in  London  at  the 
principal  and  minor  sales  in  four  assortments — black, 
grey,  white  and  mixed  colors. 

Chinese  workmen  assort  the  skins  according  to 
color,  dress  or  tan  them,  and  make  them  up  into  "plates'* 
— a  plate  is  composed  of  carefully  matched  whole  skins 
and  pieces,  and  measures  five  feet  and  six  inches  in 
length  by  about  three  feet  in  width ;  one  plate  suffices  for 
a  floor  rug,  two  plates  sewed  together  lengthwise  make 
a  sleigh  or  carriage  robe;  single  skins  may  be  used  as 
mats. 

The  first  Chinese  goat  plates  brought  to  New  York 
readily  sold  for  from  twenty  to  thirty  dollars  each;  a 
few  years  later  the  importation  reached  a  total  of  sixty 
thousand  plates  and  prices  declined  to  three  dollars. 
Chinese  dog  skins,  which  are  superior  to  goats,  are  treat- 
ed and  handled  in  the  same  way,  but  the  greater  number 
are  used  in  making  men's  coats.  Goat  skins  are  used  in 
making  coats,  largely  replacing  high  cost  raccoon,  coach- 
men's capes,  trimmings,  and  fair  imitations,  in  appear- 
ance, of  black  bear,  African  monkey,  lynx,  and  other 
articles. 

Fine  rugs  and  coverings  for  couches  are  made  of 
carefully  dressed  moose  skins. 

Fur  seal,  beaver  and  nutria  skins,  dressed  with  fur 
on,  natural  and  plucked,  are  quite  largely  used  in  making 


458  GLOVE   STOCK 

fine,  warm  gloves ;  these  are  usually  expensive,  and  suit- 
able for  dressy  wear;  cheaper  every  day  and  working 
gloves  are  made  of  raccoon,  dyed  and  natural  hair  seal, 
muskrat  and  Australian  opossum  skins;  and  in  larger 
quantity  of  tanned  deer,  elk  and  antelope  skins,  soft 
leather  skins  for  men's  and  ladies'  wear  are  made  of  fine 
kid.  Other  gloves  are  made  of  parts  of  cow,  horse,  colt 
and  pig  skin,  all  of  the  latter  being  tanned  in  very  soft 
finish  and  dyed  in  any  primary  or  fancy  color  desired. 
Mule,  sheep,  rat,  horse,  goat  and  similar  skins  are  split, 
tanned  very  soft,  and  made  up  the  same  as  kid. 

Deer  skins  are  obtained  in  quantity  in  Maine,  sev- 
eral Western  States,  Mexico,  Central  and  South  Amer- 
ica, and  Europe.  The  moose,  or  properly  elk,  is  the 
largest  member  of  the  deer  tribe ;  it  formerly  abounded 
in  Maine,  Vermont,  New  Hampshire  and  along  the  Ca- 
nadian rivers  emptying  into  the  Bay  of  Fundy;  but  is 
now  found  only  in  small  numbers  in  Maine,  Oregon, 
Washington,  the  extreme  northern  border  of  the  United 
States,  in  Canada  south  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  and 
as  far  north  as  Hudson's  Bay;  soft,  durable  gloves  are 
made  of  properly  tanned  moose  hide ;  the  head,  mounted 
as  a  trophy,  is  worth  many  times  the  price  of  the  entire 
skin. 

The  Wapiti,  better  known  as  American  stag,  red 
elk,  or  gray  elk,  is  now  most  numerous  in  its  winter  ter- 
ritory in  the  vicinity  of  Hudson's  Bay ;  the  Indians  dress 
the  skins  very  finely,  using  the  brains  and  fat,  rendering 
the  pelt  soft  and  pliant  under  all  conditions  of  wet  and 
dry  weather. 

Antelope,  obtained  in  western  sections  of  the  United 
States,  constitutes  a  very  light-weight  stock  suitable  only 


GLOVE   STOCK  4S9 

for  moderately  heavy  gloves ;  antelope  is  dressed  by  both 
Indians  and  white  men,  the  former  producing  the  better 
finished  and  dearer  goods ;  dressed  with  hair  on  antelope 
skins  weigh  from  two  to  three  and  one-half  pounds,  and 
tanned,  as  leather,  from  eight  to  sixteen  ounces  each. 

Virginia  deer  as  tanned  and  smoked  by  Indians,  are 
soft  and  flexible  and  not  readily  injured  by  moisture. 

Buckskin,  tanned  deer,  is  strong  and  serviceable 
for  making  workingmen's  gloves,  and  is  often  sold  as 
"genuine"  chamois. 

Reindeer  skins,  obtained  in  northern  portions  of 
Europe,  Asia  and  North  America,  provide  excellent 
stock  for  the  manufacture  of  strong  winter  gloves. 

Caribou,  or  American  reindeer,  is  a  particularly 
good  article. 

Rocky  Mountain  goat  skins,  which  are  excellently 
prepared  for  glovers'  uses  by  Indian  dressers,  constitute 
good  stock. 

Buffalo  hides,  too  lightly  furred  to  be  used  as  robes, 
were  tanned  for  the  manufacture  of  gloves,  but  the 
leather  was  too  porous  to  be  considered  valuable. 

Prairie  dog  skins,  dressed  as  fur  or  leather,  make 
excellent  short  and  gauntletted  gloves. 

The  prairie  dog,  a  species  of  marmot,  abounds  in 
the  level  lands  along  the  Missouri  River  and  near  the 
River  Platte  in  Nebraska;  it  is  about  sixteen  inches  in 
length,  with  a  coat  of  reddish-brown  and  grey  hairs  and 
light  fur ;  it  makes  its  home  in  burrows,  and  where  large 
colonies  exist  the  entire  field  is  undermined ;  recently  ef- 
forts have  been  made  to  exterminate  the  animal  with 
poison. 


Sundry  peltries,  notably  the  beautiful  furry  coats 
of  ermine,  sable  and  black  fox,  merit  the  distinction  of 
being  designated  as  royal  furs,  because  of  their  exten- 
sive employment  for  centuries  in  the  manufacture  of 
state  and  coronation  robes  of  kings  and  queens  and  auto- 
crats of  every  name.  The  furs  enumerated,  and  addi- 
tionally sea  otter,  blue  fox  and  other  fine  peltries  are 
quite  generally  worn  by  royalty  upon  other  than  court 
occasions  of  great  national  interest,  some  or  all  of  them 
being  conspicuously  present  in  their  every  day  attire 
throughout  the  winter  season.  Kings  and  queens  of 
England  and  France  have  from  "time  immemorial" 
worn  trailing  robes  lined  with  choicest  sables  and  er- 
mines, hundreds  of  skins  worth  a  "king's  ransom"  in  a 
single  garment,  the  total  outlay  being  possible  only  to 
the  possessors  of  royal  incomes.  Owing  to  the  unprece- 
dentedly  large  number  of  persons  officiating,  and  par- 
ticipating by  virtue  of  rank  and  official  position,  an  ex- 
traordinary number  of  ermine  skins  was  required  in 
the  coronation  ceremonies  of  the  present  king  and  queen 
of  England;  as  the  existing  supply  in  the  market  was 
inadequate  to  meet  the  demand,  trappers  in  Russia  and 
Siberia  devoted  the  preceding  winter  largely  to  ermine 
trapping  to  procure  new  and  sufficient  supplies;  this 
marked  activity  in  ermine  trapping  extended  to  the 
United  States  where  trappers  were  offered  advanced 
prices  for  white  weasel — an  animal  of  the  same  family 
as  the  ermine,  but  inferior  in  size  and  fur — with  the  re- 
sult that  many  thousands  were  caught,  not  for  corona- 
tion robes  in  England,  but  for  a  multitude  of  uncrowned 

460 


ROYAL   FURS  461 

queens  and  princesses  in  America  who,  though  not  in 
"kings'  houses"  delight  to  "wear  soft  clothing"  made 
popular  and  costly  by  royal  approval. 

Queen  Elizabeth  of  England  wore  a  full  depth  gar- 
ment of  crown  sables  presented  to  her  by  the  Czar  of 
Russia,  who  enjoyed  a  monopoly  of  the  darkest  and 
choicest  sables  annually  collected  in  his  empire. 

Ermine,  though  at  all  times  past  and  present  the 
ceremonial  fur  of  royalty,  is  not  so  exclusively  favored 
as  formerly,  other  fine  pelts  being  used. 

The  fur  of  the  Siberian  squirrel,  which  is  a  hand- 
some grey,  briefly  enjoyed  a  royal  reign  in  France  where 
it  was  first  introduced  by  Napoleon  I  on  his  return  to 
Paris  from  Thuringia  early  in  the  nineteenth  century, 
on  which  occasion  he  presented  Empress  Josephine  with 
a  sufl5cient  number  of  squirrel  skins  to  make  a  superb 
garment.  A  royal  robe,  one  of  many  belonging  to  the 
Czar  of  Russia,  was  shown  at  the  London  Exposition 
in  1 851;  it  was  composed  wholly  of  selected  pieces  of 
fur  taken  from  the  neck  of  the  blue  fox,  which  is  the 
softest  and  finest  part  of  the  pelt;  the  garment  was 
extremely  beautiful  and  nearly  as  light  as  down,  and 
was  appraised  at  £3,400  sterling. 

Sea  otter  has  been  popular  for  many  years  with  the 
rulers  of  Russia  and  China. 

The  Queen  of  Holland  shows  a  marked  preference 
for  marten  fur  in  the  darker  shades,  which  is  near-sable 
in  every  particular  except  price. 

The  Empress  of  Austria  wears  astrakhan  whether 
it  is  in  fashion  or  neglected. 

The  Queen  of  Spain  prefers  beaver  fur. 

The  late  Empress  of  China  had  sable,  sea  otter,  fox 


462  ROYAL   FURS 

and  other  furs  in  practically  unlimited  quantity,  and 
adapted  to  all  her  moods. 

Many  of  the  crowns  of  historic  times  have  been 
lined  with  ermine  and  bordered  with  sable. 

Furs  have  not  been  continuously  popular  with 
royalty  only,  but  have  been  worn  with  a  pronounced 
sense  of  pride  and  comfort  by  dukes,  earls,  counts, 
mandarins  and  nobles  of  every  degree,  judges  and 
officials  in  all  lands;  and  the  custom  will  continue  until 
all  distinctions  merge  in  enthroned  humanity. 

Jf  urg  in  Heralbrp 

Furs  have  an  important  place  in  heraldry,  a  matter 
of  profound  interest  to  those  concerned  in  the  descent  of 
man,  particularly  their  own,  but  who  are  indifferent  re- 
garding the  ascent  of  any  one,  the  possession  of  a  coat  of 
arms  constituting  an  "outward  and  visible  sign"  of  the 
occupancy  of  a  square  foot  of  space  at  the  top — to  which 
they  have,  paradoxically,  descended. 

The  shield,  which  is  the  chief  object  upon  which  the 
emblems  or  charges  of  heraldry  are  shown,  is  character- 
ized by  what  are  termed  tinctures,  which  consists  of 
metals,  colors  and  furs ;  the  surface  of  the  shield  is  called 
the  field. 

Ermine  of  four  varieties,  squirrel  and  sable  are  the 
furs  used ;  their  correct  titles  are : 

Ermine — ^A  white  field  with  black  stripes,  or  tips  of 
ermine  tails,  with  a  black  hair  diverging  from  either  side 
of  the  stripe,  and  three  small  black  spots  arranged  in  the 
form  of  a  triangle  over  each  stripe. 

Ermines — A  sable  field,  with  white  stripes  and 
spots. 


FURS    IN   HERALDRY  463 

Erminois — A  golden  field,  with  black  spots  and 
stripes. 

Erminites — A  white  field,  with  black  stripes  and 
spots;  it  is  similar  to  ermine  in  every  particular,  except 
that  the  hair  or  line  diverging  from  either  side  of  the 
stripe  is  red  instead  of  black. 

Vair — Is  composed  of  bell-shaped  pieces  of  bluish- 
grey  and  white  squirrel  fur,  arranged  on  the  field  base 
against  base.  The  squirrel  producing  this  fur  is  bluish- 
grey  on  the  back  and  white  on  the  abdomen,  and  there- 
for called  varus.  Silver  and  blue  are  now  substituted 
for  fur. 

Counter-Vair — This  is  distinguished  from  vair  by 
having  the  bell-shaped  figures  on  the  field  placed  base 
against  point,  or  the  reverse  of  vair. 

Potent — Another  variety  of  vair,  the  diflPerence 
being  in  the  form  of  the  figures. 

Potent-Counter — A  description  of  vair,  the  figures 
on  the  field  being  in  the  form  of  the  letter  T. 

Purflew — ^A  border  of  fur  bell-shaped,  similar  to 
vair;  when  limited  to  a  single  row  it  is  said  to  be  pur- 
flewed;  when  two  rows  are  used,  it  is  counter-pur fiewed; 
and  when  three  rows  are  employed,  it  is  vair. 

Mantling — This  is  the  heraldic  name  of  a  mantle, 
somewhat  larger  than  the  shield  behind  which  it  is  ar- 
ranged. Mantlings  for  kings  are  of  gold  cloth,  finished 
or  lined  with  ermine  fur;  when  intended  for  peers  the 
mantlings  are  made  of  crimson  velvet,  lined  with  white 
fur  marked  with  black  bars,  the  number  of  bars  varying 
according  to  the  rank  of  the  owner.  Mantlings  for  com- 
moners are  lined  with  plain  white  fur. 

Cap  of  Maintenance — This  is  the  name  of  the  Cap 


464  FURS   IN   HERALDRY 

of  State  borne  before  English  sovereigns  at  their  coro- 
nation ;  it  is  made  of  velvet  and  lined  and  bordered  with 
ermine  fur.  Coronets  of  dukes,  earls  and  other  robes 
are  similarly  lined  and  bordered. 

Fur-bearing  animals  most  frequently  represented 
in  heraldry  are  the  lion,  stag,  deer,  bear,  wolf,  ounce, 
hind,  cat,  panther,  squirrel  and  seal. 

^acerbotal 

Priests  claiming  to  be  servitors  of  the  "one  true 
God,"  and  those  who  served  Baal  and  sundry  gods  of 
the  imagination,  early  noted  the  value  of  fur  as  a  ma- 
terial for  making  or  ornamenting  sacerdotal  robes  for 
special  occasions,  exceptional  ceremonies,  spectacular 
if  not  spiritually  inspiring,  and  sheckel-securing  incan- 
tations; and  as  primitive  and  diversely  superstitious 
forms  of  divine  service  still  abide,  furs  retain  their  early 
sacerdotal  vogue. 

In  the  period  of  the  Exodus,  the  Hebrews  while  in 
the  Wilderness  of  Zinn  were  required  to  build  a  taber- 
nacle, and  offerings  for  the  purpose  were  brought  to 
Moses  by  those  who  possessed  the  desired  articles, 
namely,  badger  skins,  ram  skins  dyed  red,  and  goats' 
hair ;  the  ram  skins  were  used  as  a  covering  for  the  tab- 
ernacle, over  which  there  was  an  outer  covering  made 
of  the  badger  skins — the  latter  being  impervious  to 
moisture;  the  goats'  hair  was  spun  and  made  into  cur- 
tains for  the  tent  over  the  tabernacle,  eleven  curtains 
being  made,  each  one  forty-five  feet  long  by  six  feet 
wide.  When  the  "camp  set  forward,"  the  people  moved 
from  one  place  to  another,  the  "ark  of  testimony,"  the 
"table  of  shewbread,"  and  all  that  pertained  thereto. 


SACERDOTAL  4«5 

were  first  protected  with  a  cloth  of  scarlet  and  over  that 
a  covering  of  badger  skins;  the  seven-branched  "candle- 
stick, with  its  tongs,  snuffers  and  oil  vessels"  were  put 
in  a  bag  of  "covering  of  badger  skins."  The  golden 
altar  was  first  protected  with  a  "cloth  of  blue,"  and  over 
that  "a  covering  of  badger  skins" ;  all  the  "instruments 
of  ministry,"  and  all  vessels  pertaining  to  the  altar  were 
similarly  covered  with  badgers  skins  while  the  camp, 
people,  was  in  motion. 

Under  the  law  of  Moses,  "the  priest  that  offered  any 
man's  burnt  offering"  was  permitted  to  retain  "for  him- 
self the  skin  of  the  burnt  offering."  Two  rams  were 
slain  and  burnt  as  offerings  in  consecrating  Aaron  as 
high-priest,  and  his  sons  as  assistants  in  the  service  of 
the  first  tabernacle ;  the  ceremony  consumed  seven  days. 

Later,  when  the  temple  had  been  erected  at  Jerusa- 
lem, the  goat  was  allowed  to  be  presented  in  the  temple 
as  an  offering  for  sin ;  this  particular  offering  consisted 
of  two  goats,  which  were  brought  to  the  high-priest  who 
cast  lots  upon  them,  "one  lot  for  the  Lord,  and  the  other 
for  the  scape-goat" ;  the  first  was  sacrificed  by  the  high- 
priest,  and  the  other  was  permitted  to  "go  for  a  scape- 
goat into  the  wilderness." 

The  ram  also  served  as  a  burnt,  peace  or  trespass 
offering.  The  burnt  offering  of  the  prince  on  the  Sab- 
bath day,  presented  through  the  high-priest,  consisted 
of  six  lambs  and  a  ram  without  blemish. 

John  the  Baptist  wore  "a  girdle  of  skins  about  his 
loins." 

The  false  prophets  were  stigmatized  as  those  who 
"wear  sheep's  clothing,  but  inwardly  they  are  ravening 
wolves" — the  visible  sacerdotal  garment  was  the  symbol 


466  SACERDOTAL 

of  gentleness,  but  it  was  worn  merely  to  deceive.  The 
Bishop  of  Rome,  cardinals,  and  bishops  of  other  sees, 
wear  ermine  upon  occasions. 

Aboriginal  priests  often  wore  furs,  noticeable  as 
grotesque  rather  than  beautiful  or  seemly. 

In  the  days  when  the  bison  abounded  in  the  United 
States  a  pure  white  specimen  was  on  rare  occasions  cap- 
tured by  an  Indian  hunter,  and  its  skin,  priceless  to  the 
captor,  was  devoted  to  religious  uses. 

jFur  ClotJ)ins 

The  selection  of  the  skins  of  animals  for  the  produc- 
tion of  necessary  clothing  was  undoubtedly  made  at  a 
period  when  no  other  material  was  available;  and  the 
continued  employment  of  skins  for  the  purpose  by  the 
human  inhabitants  of  Greenland,  Iceland  and  the  entire 
Arctic  regions  may  be  accepted  as  an  instinctive  adapta- 
tion of  the  material  most  perfectly  suited  to  their  needs 
and  comfort,  and  the  maintenance  of  life  itself  under 
the  climatic  conditions  to  which  they  are  subject.  A 
puzzle  past  solving  is  encountered  in  the  endeavor  to 
determine  how  the  original  inhabitant  of  those  dreary 
wastes  of  ice  and  snow  managed  to  live  until  he  caught 
his  first  seal,  reindeer  or  eider  duck  for  the  dual  purposes 
of  subsistence  and  clothing. 

Natives  of  these  extremely  frigid  latitudes,  where 
the  temperature  remains  continuously  below  zero  for 
days  and  weeks,  require  fur  garments  which  cover  the 
entire  person,  for  if  any  part  of  the  body  is  even  briefly 
exposed  to  the  atmosphere  it  is  instantly  and  often  se- 
riously frost-bitten;  and  thus  attired  in  their  homely 
home-made  suits  of  common  seal  and  reindeer  skins  they 


FUR  CLOTHING  4«7 

appear,  as  seen  from  a  distance,  more  like  fur-bearing 
animals  than  human  beings ;  but  those  who  pause  to  won- 
der quickly  realize  the  wisdom  of  the  semi-savages  as 
shown  in  the  selection  of  attire  adapted  to  environment 
rather  than  expressive  of  mere  personal  pride.  Esqui- 
mau clothing  is  composed  of  furs  and  skins,  down  and 
feathers,  all  the  work  being  done  by  the  wearers;  the 
head  of  the  family  catches  and  skins  the  animals,  and 
his  better-half  completes  the  task. 

Esquimaux  women  dress  the  skins  by  chewing  them 
until  the  leather  becomes  extremely  soft ;  pelts  thus  pre- 
pared are  impervious  to  cold  and  moisture,  and  absolute- 
ly wind-proof,  qualities  of  the  utmost  importance  in  a 
treeless  waste  almost  ceaselessly  swept  by  icy  gales. 

Hair  seal,  reindeer,  and  such  other  fur  skins  as  he 
procures  from  time  to  time,  walrus  hide,  bird  skins  and 
eider  down  are  the  component  materials  of  the  winter 
and  summer  clothing  of  the  Esquimau;  the  principal 
garment,  or  "parkie,"  is  of  reindeer  skin,  is  made  moder- 
ately close  fitting,  reaches  to  or  somewhat  below  the  hips, 
is  put  on  over  the  head  and  includes  a  hood  sufficiently 
large  to  cover  all  parts  of  the  head  except  the  face. 

Trousers  are  made  of  seal  or  reindeer  skin,  from 
three  to  five  pieces  being  sewed  together  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  the  several  parts  are  separately  noticeable  at  a 
considerable  distance ;  parkie  and  trousers  are  worn  fur- 
side  out.  Seal  skin  and  walrus  hide  intended  for  trim- 
ming or  special  ornamentation,  are  denuded  of  hair  and 
tanned  white  or  a  light  shade  of  yellow. 

Heavy  boots  and  large  mittens  complete  the  visible 
portions  of  the  costume.  Beneath  these  outer  garments 
the  Esquimau  wears  lighter  and  warmer  ones  made  of 


468  FUR   CLOTHING 

eider  down,  delicate  fawn  and  bird  skins,  and  specially 
prepared  reindeer  hides;  these  downy  under  garments 
are  worn  with  the  fur  or  feathers  next  to  the  person, 
and  prove  perfectly  protective  to  all  parts  of  the  body 
during  the  severest  winters. 

Men  and  women  are  attired  alike,  with  the  occa- 
sional exception  of  some  slight  additional  ornamentation 
in  fur  or  feather  upon  parkie  or  trousers  as  an  expres- 
sion of  innate  feminine  love  of  finery  and  effective  color. 

Reindeer  skin  is  almost  exclusively  used  in  making 
clothing  for  the  brief  and  not  too  intensely  warm  "sum- 
mer time." 

In  his  house  composed  wholly  of  ice  and  snow  the 
Esquimau  sleeps  the  sleep  of  the  blessed  lying  between 
robes  of  Polar  bear,  seal,  reindeer  and  fox  skins.  Furs 
were  for  many  years  reserved  to  kings  and  queens,  after 
men  became  so  inept  as  to  invent  such  imperious  lux- 
uries ;  later  ladies  and  nobles,  probably  as  an  act  of  royal 
diplomacy,  were  permitted  to  possess  and  wear  furs 
compatible  with  their  rank;  and  as  time  went  on  the 
privilege  of  wearing  furs  in  autocratic  realms  was  grad- 
ually extended  to  all  titled  persons — ^baronets,  knights, 
squires,  church  dignitaries,  jurists,  public  officials,  the 
learned,  self-exalted,  and  the  mere  possessor  of  money 
however  acquired;  and  finally  in  the  leveling  sweep  of 
democratic  progress,  everybody  having  "the  price"  from 
costliest  sea  otter  down  the  scale  to  cheapest  coney — 
and  a  little  lower  still  the  modest  figure  demanded  by 
second-hand  emporiums  specializing  in  furs  and  filmy 
fabrics. 

Furs  are  today  more  extendedly  popular  than  in 
any  past  period,  and  are  almost  universally  worn,  except 


FUR  CLOTHING  469 

in  tropical  climates,  because  of  their  attractiveness,  the 
comfort  afforded  the  wearers,  and  more  largely  on  ac- 
count of  the  commanding  favor  of  fashion — only  the 
exceptionally  wise  dare  to  contravene  the  decrees  of 
fashion.  The  humble  pioneer  blazing  the  way  beyond 
inhabited  borders  for  a  succeeding  civilization  in  which 
he  scarcely  hopes  to  participate;  the  courageous  hunter 
seeking  game  and  fur  in  trackless  forests,  desolate  plains 
and  snow-capped  mountains,  in  order  that  nabbobs  and 
ladies  fair  may  be  gloriously  attired;  the  venturesome 
explorer  striving  to  master  the  mystery  hedging  un- 
known regions,  from  pole  to  pole,  in  the  service  of  hu- 
manity ;  the  fearless  prospector  delving  for  gold  in  lands 
where  ice  is  ever  present  and  Boreas  holds  triumphant 
sway  the  greater  part  of  the  year ;  the  sturdy  woodsman 
toiling  midst  snow  and  ice  in  northern  forests  felling 
mighty  trees  to  meet  the  needs  of  dwellers  in  cities, 
towns  and  humble  homes — all  these  and  many  more  have 
found  great  coats,  caps,  mitts  and  sleeping  bags  of  fur 
almost  as  essential  as  food  in  their  battles  of  endurance 
with  the  elements. 

Everyone,  whether  dwelling  in  a  mansion  or  a  hut, 
reveling  in  ease  and  luxury,  or  ceaselessly  toiling  for 
mere  existence;  the  millionaire  and  the  man  and  the 
maid  of  moderate  means,  appear  serenely  happy  in  the 
possession  of  furs,  common  or  costly,  or  the  little  fur 
fancy  favors. 

Everywhere,  and  for  everyone  able  to  buy  or  bor- 
row, from  king  to  peasant,  princely  merchant  to  push- 
cart proprietor  in  the  American  metropolis,  fur  possesses 
an  irresistible  fascination ;  even  the  most  efficient  valuer 
of  miscellaneous  merchandise  from  wearables  of  sim- 


470  FUR   CLOTHING 

plest  structure  to  gems  of  highest  rating,  whose  loan- 
some  vocation  is  pursued  under  the  sign  of  three  golden 
spheres,  takes  an  extraordinary  interest  in  furs,  invest- 
ing again  and  again  in  a  sense  of  greater  security 
than  is  ever  enjoyed  by  the  exclusive  fur  merchant,  or 
most  enthusiastic  connoisseur. 

FURS  AND  PELTRIES 

Trade  terms  may  to  many  seem  rather  peculiar,  but 
the  words  used  in  designating  the  furry,  hairy  or  woolly 
coats  of  animals  in  the  marketable  state,  are  clearly  com- 
prehensible even  to  minds  untutored  in  trade  technical- 
ities. Skins  of  all  fur-bearing  animals  may  be  properly 
designated  as  furs  or  peltries;  furs,  is  applied  only  to 
the  skins  of  such  creatures  as  are  strictly  fur-bearers; 
some  persons  use  the  singular,  designating  a  single  skin 
as  "a  fur";  other  forms  used  by  common  consent,  are; 
Sheep  pelt,  but  always  lamb  skin;  goat  skins  and  kid 
skins ;  ox  and  cow  hides,  but  invariably  calf  skins ;  buf- 
falo hides,  deer  skins,  and  horse  hides,  but  always  colt 
or  pony  skins. 


0ptn  anb  Cageb 


In  skinning  fur-bearing  animals  the  skin  is  cut  from 
the  root  of  the  tail  down  the  center  of  the  abdomen  to 
the  under  jaw,  and  is  then  carefully  removed  from  the 
carcass  and  spread  out  flat,  in  which  form  it  is  stretched 
upon  boards  of  the  proper  dimensions  and  nailed  in 
place,  fur  side  against  the  board,  the  small  nails  used  for 
the  purpose  being  driven  through  the  pelt  around  its  en- 
tire edge.  Some  less  particular  trappers,  especially  be- 
ginners and  those  who  too  cautiously  count  the  cost,  nail 
their  skins  to  barn  doors,  sides  of  houses,  or  any  place 
that  "will  do."  Skins  handled  in  this  way,  stretched  flat 
on  boards  or  buildings,  are  known  in  the  trade  as  "open," 
and  are  so  quoted  in  price  lists.  Skins  are  also  removed 
from  the  bodies  of  the  dead  animals  by  first  cutting 
across,  from  the  root  of  the  tail,  right  and  left  to  each 
hind  foot,  and  then  drawing  the  skin  downward  and  en- 
tirely off  the  carcass ;  skins  thus  removed  from  the  ani- 
mal are  said  to  be  cased.  These  cased  skins,  in  order  that 
they  may  be  properly  dried  in  the  natural  size,  are  drawn 
over  bent  or  bowed  hickory  withes,  or  upon  boards 
specially  shaped  for  the  purpose  and  varying  in  size 
according  to  the  known  proportion  of  the  skins  to  be 
strteched,  ranging  from  a  tiny  quarter-shingle  for  a 
weasel,  to  a  six-foot  modeled  board  for  a  sea  otter  pelt. 

All  skins  may  be  taken  off  the  animal  open  or  cased, 
but  some  furs  work  up  in  manufacturing  better  in  one 
way  than  the  other. 

Skins  that  should  be  stretched  "open"  are :  Beaver, 
seals,  nutria  and  chinchilla;  all  others  should  be  cased. 


471 


Raw,  dressed  and  dyed  skins  are  frequently  im- 
pressed with  various  marks,  initials  or  abbreviations  to 
indicate  source  of  origin,  or  name  of  dresser,  dyer, 
owner  or  manufacturer;  these  marks  often  serve  the 
important  need  of  positive  identification  of  the  goods 
when  the  place  of  manufacture  is  in  doubt,  and  in  cases 
of  robbery,  furs  being  regarded  by  professional  and 
amateur  burglars  and  sneak  thieves  as  specially  attrac- 
tive articles  of  loot. 

Dealers,  dressers,  dyers  and  manufacturers  of 
leading  rank  impress  their  private  marks  upon  the  leath- 
er side  of  the  pelt;  raw  skins  are  similarly  stamped  or 
merely  designated  by  letters  which  are  universally  recog- 
nized as  abbreviations  of  the  locations  in  which  they 
were  procured,  as.  A.,  for  Alaska;  L.  M.,  for  Lake 
Michigan;  or  the  familiar  abbreviations  of  the  States. 

Very  fresh  skins  are  designated  "green"  or  "green- 
pelted,"  to  distinguish  them  from  those  that  have  been 
dried;  fur  seal  skins  are  stamped  with  initials  showing 
place  of  origin,  Alaska,  Copper  Island,  and  other  places ; 
and  also  to  indicate  size  and  condition ;  all  fur  seal  skins 
are  sold  at  public  sale  under  these  marks  or  grades  en- 
abling buyers  to  know  in  advance  the  exact  character  of 
each  skin.  The  Hudson's  Bay  Company  employs  numer- 
ous exclusive  marks  indicating  section  of  production, 
including : 

Canada — The  older  section  of  Canada. 

N.  W. — Northwestern  section. 

Y.  F. — Yorkf ort  on  Hudson's  Bay  at  the  mouth  of 
Nelson  River. 

472 


MARKS  473 

E.  M. — East  Main,  east  of  Hudson's  Bay  in  Lab- 
rador. 

E.  B. — Esquimau  Bay,  on  the  north  shore  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  River  in  the  Company's  old  trading  district 
known  as  the  Montreal  Department. 

M.  K.  R. — Mackenzie  River  in  the  northwest,  ex- 
tending from  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

G.  R. — Grand  River,  Province  of  Quebec. 

M.  R. — Moose  River  in  the  northwest,  southwest 
of  Hudson's  Bay. 

B.  and  M. — Bersimis  and  Mingan,  posts  in  Canada 
north  of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence. 

F.  G. — Fort  Garry,  in  the  Province  of  Manitoba, 
at  the  juncture  of  the  Assiniboine  and  Red  Rivers,  about 
forty  miles  south  of  Winnipeg. 

L.  W.  R. — Little  Whale  River  in  Labrador  empty- 
ing into  Hudson's  Bay. 

G.  W.  R.— Great  Whale  River. 
Y.  T.— Yukon  Territory. 

FUR  AND  HAIR 

Fur,  as  a  term  in  common  use,  needs  to  be  defined, 
as  in  the  natural  state  the  coats  of  animals  generally 
designated  as  fur-bearers  consist  of  a  combination  of 
fur  and  hair,  and  in  many  species  hair  exclusively. 

Fur  is  remarkably  soft,  much  shorter  than  the  hair 
on  the  same  pelt,  and  more  profuse,  covering  the  skin  so 
completely  that  no  space  may  be  found  for  the  addition 
of  even  a  few  spears ;  fur  is  notched  near  the  tip  some- 
what like  a  spear-point,  and  owing  to  this  peculiarity  in 
structure  may  be  readily  wrought  into  a  firmly  cohering 
mass,  known  as  felt.    In  color  fur  shows  a  very  limited 


474  FUR   AND    HAIR 

range  in  variation,  embracing  bluish  and  greyish  tints, 
brown  and  yellow  shades,  and  untinged  black  and  white. 

Hair  is  round,  smooth,  hollow  or  tubular,  hard  and 
even  harsh,  and  though  fairly  pliant  is  noticeably  brittle, 
particularly  when  extremely  dry.  Hair,  as  compared 
with  fur,  is  the  more  deeply  rooted  in  the  skin,  and  of 
greater  length,  but  varies  considerably  in  this  respect, 
ranging  from  one-half  inch,  approximately,  on  some 
small  canines,  to  from  four  to  nine  inches  upon  certain 
goats,  the  black  monkey  and  polar  bear ;  while  fur  is  the 
more  abundant  product,  it  is  outclassed  by  hair  in  color 
variation.  Coats  of  fur-bearers  admired  on  account 
of  the  beauty,  luster  and  color  of  the  hair,  are  made 
up  natural,  and  include  the  sable,  marten,  sea  otter, 
mink,  ermine,  chinchilla,  and  some  of  the  foxes. 

Other  pelts,  valued  solely  because  of  the  pleasing 
appearance  and  luxurious  character  of  the  soft,  dense 
fur  from  which  the  long  hairs  have  been  removed,  are 
wrought  into  forms  for  service  either  in  natural  hues, 
or  colors  imparted  by  art. 

iWisnamelr  jFurg 

Sundry  manufactured  furs  are  misnamed  for  vari- 
ous reasons,  conscienceless  retailers  being  the  principal 
offenders;  there  is  no  justification  for  the  custom  even 
when  the  particular  act  constitutes  nothing  worse  than 
a  mild  deception,  for  while  it  is  true  that  "a  rose  by  any 
other  name  would  smell  as  sweet,"  it  is  also  true  that 
coney  fur  foisted  upon  the  unsuspecting  under  any 
other  name,  wears  neither  better  nor  worse  than  coney. 

Furs  that  are  misnamed  are  always  inferior  to  the 
articles  under  whose  titles  they  masquerade — a  high 


MISNAMED   FURS  475 

grade  fur  is  never  offered  under  the  name  of  a  common 
or  low  cost  peltry. 

Misnaming  is  done  to  increase  sales,  secure  larger 
profits  than  could  be  obtained  in  selling  the  fur  under 
correct  representation,  to  gain  the  reputation  of  deal- 
ing in  goods  of  better  quality  than  are  actually  handled, 
and  definitely  as  an  effective  bait  for  catching  gudgeons 
— snobs  for  whom  nothing  ready-made  is  good  enough, 
and  who  proudly  "give  up"  an  excess  of  twenty  per  cent 
over  value  for  a  garment  "to  order,"  and  unwittingly 
receive  a  drummer's  sample  slightly  changed  to  fit ;  and 
others  who  are  eager  to  emulate  the  over-dressed,  and 
who  would  consider  themselves  grossly  underrated  if 
the  tradesman  offered  them  a  coat  of  rabbit  fur  for  fifty 
dollars,  but  who  quite  cheerfully  surrender  one  hundred 
and  twenty-five  dollars  for  the  same  garment  when 
represented  as  French  sable. 

England  has  enacted  a  drastic  law  against  this  form 
of  deception,  and  it  is  effectively  enforced  through  the 
Fur  Trades'  Section  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce.  In 
some  parts  of  the  United  States  governing  the  misnam- 
ing of  articles  offered  for  sale  are  upon  the  statute  books, 
and  a  few  convictions  have  been  secured — there  should 
be  many. 

Furs  most  generally  misnamed  are : 

American  sable,  sold  as  Russian  sable. 

Fitch  dyed,  sold  as  sable. 

Goat  dyed,  sold  as  bear  or  monkey. 

Hare  dyed,  sold  as  fox,  lynx  or  sable. 

Kid,  sold  as  lamb  or  broadtail. 

Marmot,  blended,  sold  as  mink  or  sable. 


476  MISNAMED   FURS 

Mink,  blended,  sold  as  sable,  and  unhaired  and 
dyed,  sold  as  seal. 

Muskrat,  unhaired  and  dyed,  sold  as  mink,  electric 
seal,  Hudson  seal.  Red  River  seal,  and  many  other  kinds 
of  seal,  none  of  which  exist. 

Muskrat,  sheared,  sold  as  mole. 

Nutria,  unhaired  and  dyed,  sold  as  beaver,  seal, 
electric  seal  and  Hudson  seal. 

Otter,  unhaired  and  dyed,  sold  as  real  fur  seal,  and 
electric  seal. 

Raccoon,  dyed,  sold  as  lynx. 

Rabbit,  dyed,  sold  as  sable  or  French  sable ;  un- 
haired and  dyed,  sold  as  electric  seal,  and  sundry  other 
seals  not  found  on  land  or  sea. 

White  rabbit,  sold  as  ermine,  and  dyed,  represented 
as  chinchilla — rabbit,  twenty-five  cents,  real  chinchilla 
ten  dollars  per  skin. 

Hares,  foxes  and  other  dyed  skins  pointed  with 
white  hairs,  sold  as  natural  furs. 

Dyed  skins  of  many  kinds,  sold  as  natural. 

Wild  cat,  sold  as  genet. 

Opossum,  blended,  sold  as  stone  marten. 

Muskrat,  natural  and  blended,  sold  as  water  mink, 
or  brook  mink. 

The  need  of  a  pure  fur  law,  with  penalty  to  fit,  is 
manifest. 


ssss, 


3S 


Mar 

The  often  reiterated  assertion  that  "history  re- 
peats itself"  may  be  trite,  but  records  of  great  events 
prove  it  true,  definitely  so  in  war's  effects  upon  the  fur 
trade.  In  the  earlier  wars  the  common  people  were  de- 
spoiled of  their  necessary  and  highly  prized  fur  skins  to 
their  great  personal  discomfort,  the  victors  confiscating 
the  goods  to  their  own  uses,  or  retaining  them  as  tro- 
phies. 

The  war  of  1812  between  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain  completely  destroyed  the  essential  and 
profitable  export  trade  in  American  raw  furs  conducted 
by  individual  exporters,  and  on  a  large  scale  by  the 
American  Fur  Company,  London  being  the  world's  cen- 
ter of  receipt  and  distribution.  This  loss  of  the  most  im- 
portant part  of  its  business  ended  the  ambitious  career 
of  the  American  Fur  Company ;  and  though  subsequent 
to  the  cessation  of  hostilities  English  traders  were  pro- 
hibited from  engaging  in  the  fur  business  within  the 
Sorders  of  the  United  States,  the  company  did  not 
resume. 

During  the  war  London  remained  open  as  an  active 
market  for  the  receipt  of  skins  and  the  operations  of 
buyers  from  all  countries  except  the  United  States. 

The  war  also  adversely  affected  the  business  of 
American  fur  merchants  in  the  home  market,  as  under 
normal  conditions  collections  of  skins  regularly  exceed- 
ed domestic  consumption,  and  the  reduced  demand,  con- 
sequent upon  the  loss  of  the  export  trade,  caused  an  im- 
mediate and  pronounced  decline  in  values  rendering 
trapping  unremunerative. 

4!I7 


478  WAR 

The  war  of  the  Rebellion,  1860-65,  materially  inter- 
fered with  the  foreign  and  domestic  trade  in  raw  furs; 
the  catch  was  greatly  reduced,  as  thousands  of  men  who 
formerly  trapped  and  hunted  were  on  the  firing  lines,  and 
amateurs  who  took  their  places  on  the  trap-line  depend- 
ed upon  luck  rather  than  skill — and  luck  in  any  enter- 
prise does  not  definitely  dififer  from  a  hopeful  enumera- 
tion of  little  chicks  prior  to  placing  the  eggs  in  the  incu- 
bator. In  consequence  of  the  small  catch  fine  Eastern 
and  Northern  mink  considerably  advanced  in  price ;  the 
war  beginning  in  19 14  produced  the  contrary  effect, 
lower  values,  owing  to  the  great  decrease  in  the  number 
of  consumers  abroad,  and  inability  of  the  home  market 
to  absorb  a  normal  collection. 

The  boxer  war  in  China  like  the  conflicts  in  the  early 
centuries,  resulted  in  many  personal  losses  of  valuable 
furs  to  the  vanquished,  chiefly  non-combatants,  due  to 
looting  by  the  Allies. 

The  latest,  greatest  and  most  barbarous  war  of  all 
time,  beginning  in  the  summer  of  19 14,  duplicated,  but 
with  far  greater  loss,  the  record  of  the  earlier  and  less 
strenuous  conflicts ;  the  exportation  of  furs  immediately 
ceased,  London  public  sales  were  abandoned,  and  nearly 
all  foreign  markets  were  closed  to  American  shippers; 
all  of  the  countries  engaged  in  the  unreasonable  and  in- 
excusable slaughter  were  important  consumers  of  Amer- 
ican furs,  and  the  almost  instant  loss  of  so  large  a  per- 
centage of  the  trade  paralyzed  the  fur  business  in  the 
United  States;  prices  of  skins  declined  sharply;  mer- 
chants who  believed  they  were  well  informed  as  to  the 
consuming  power  of  the  home  market  augmented  the 
depression  by  limiting  their  purchases  to  comparatively 


WAR 


479 


small  lots  at  low  figures.  Many  of  the  most  experienced 
and  successful  trappers  refrained  from  operating,  being 
unwilling  to  accept  prices  quoted  at  the  opening  of  the 
trapping  season  of  1914-15.  As  the  war,  at  first  as- 
sumed to  be  a  matter  of  a  few  weeks,  still  raged  on  the 
near  approach  of  winter,  wolf  and  other  heavy  and 
strong  skins  suitable  for  military  purposes  were  pur- 
chased for  the  armies  at  fair  prices,  and  in  quantity,  af- 
fording some  relief  to  the  trade;  but  the  trapping  sea- 
son as  a  whole  was  a  dismal  disappointment  to  all  con- 
cerned. 


COUGAR,     PUMA,    PAXTHER,    MOUNTAIN    LION- 
KNOWN    BY    AIAj    these    names 


479 


480  WAR 

As  the  year  19 15  advanced,  though  the  frightful 
war  continued,  conditions  materially  improved;  a  sud- 
den and  quite  general  demand  sprang  up  in  America  for 
furs,  chiefly  neckpieces  composed  of  single  skins,  to  be 
worn  during  the  "good  old  summer-time";  this  unex- 
pected outlet  resulted  in  the  consumption  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  fine,  medium  and  common  peltries  at  better  prices 
than  had  prevailed  in  the  immediately  preceding  winter. 
Values  continued  to  increase  as  the  months  passed,  and 
the  raw  fur  collection  season  of  191 5-16  opened  with  a 
strong  competitive  demand  for  skins  of  all  kinds,  and  the 
season  proved  to  be  one  of  the  best,  all  round,  in  sev- 
eral years. 

The  American  export  trade  in  furs,  which  was 
nearly  destroyed  by  the  European  war,  recovered  some- 
what in  19 1 6,  reaching  a  total  valuation  of  approximate- 
ly eight  million  dollars  during  the  fiscal  year  ending 
June  30,  1916. 

In  February,  191 7,  England  placed  an  embargo  on 
the  importation  of  furs,  and  exports  to  London  ceased. 

In  19 16  Russia  prohibited  the  export  of  all  furs;  on 
February  i  the  regulation  was  changed  to  permit  the 
exportation  of  black  and  blue  fox,  marten,  ermine,  fitch 
and  otter  skins  without  restrictions,  and  the  export  of 
other  furs  upon  application  filed  with  the  Bureau  of 
Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce  at  New  York.  Sable, 
lamb,  sheep  and  goat  skins  were  excepted,  and  were  not 
permitted  to  be  exported. 

France  prohibited,  from  January  18,  191 7,  the  ex- 
portation of  furs  of  all  kinds,  except  to  the  United  States 
and  allied  nations. 


prices 

Prices  of  raw  furs  fluctuate  so  greatly,  not  merely 
in  the  course  of  a  year,  but  in  instance  within  a  few  days, 
that  dependable  figures  cannot  be  given  for  any  period 
other  than  the  particular  date  of  quotation. 

Prices  of  dressed  and  dyed  skins  vary  according  to 
quality,  and  as  there  is  no  fixed  standard  governing 
any  one  article,  fox,  for  instance,  prices  at  retail  differ 
somewhat  on  furs  of  the  same  grade — each  merchant 
determines  his  own  selling  price  within  certain  limits. 

COMPARATIVE  VALUES 

While  exact  prices  of  fur  skins  may  not  be  given, 
as  already  stated,  comparative  values  of  United  States 
furs  in  the  raw  state  may  be  shown  to  the  reasonable 
satisfaction  of  those  interested.  Peltries  vary  in  intrin- 
sic value  according  to  the  section  in  which  they  are  pro- 
cured, those  secured  farthest  north  being  most  richly 
furred  and  best  in  detail,  and  extreme  southern  skins 
lowest  in  points  considered  in  determining  value.  Skins 
secured  in  adjacent  States  may  be  definitely  dissimilar, 
or  practically  identical  in  quality;  but  a  Texas  mink  or 
muskrat  is  pronounced  inferior  to  one  born  and  bred 
in  New  York  or  New  Jersey. 

We  reproduce  here  from  "Fur  News,"  a  valued 
monthly  publication  devoted  to  the  raw  fur  trade,  actual 
quotations,  that  is  prices  offered  and  paid  by  merchants 
in  the  trade  at  large;  the  quotations,  which  are  those 
given  for  January,  191 7,  show  the  variation  in  prices  of 

481 


482 


COMPARATIVE   VALUES 


raw  furs  at  that  time  according  to  geographical  differ- 
ences in  source  of  origin : 

BEAR 

Black,  Northern 20.00    12.00    8.00    8,00    2.00      .50 

Black,   Central 12.00      8.00    5.00    5.00    1.50      .50 

Black,  Southern  and  S.  W 10.00      7.00    4.00    4.00    1.00      .25 

Grizzly  and  Polar,  according  to 
size  and  quality. 

BEAVER 
Far  Western  States  and  Eastern 

Canada   8.00      6.00    3.00    3.00    1.00      .50 

Cent,  and  S.  W.  U.  S 6.00      4.00    2.00    2.00      .75      .40 

CAT,   WILD 

Northern  and  N,  W. 4.00      3.00    2.00    2.00      .75      .25 

Southern  and  S.  W 1.50      1.00      .50      .50      .25      .10 

FOX,  GREY 

Central  and  Northern  U.  S 2.00      1.25      .85      .85      .45      .15 

Southern  and  S.  W.  U.  S 1.50      1.00      .50      .50      .25      .10 

FOX,  RED 

Alaska,  Northern  and  West  Can.  14.00  10.00  7.00  7.00  2.50  .50 

Newfoundland  and  Labrador. . .  12.00  9.00  6.00  6.00  2.00  .50 

Minn.,  Wis.,  Daks,  and  No.  Mich.  10.00  7.50  5.00  5.00  1.50  .50 
E.  Can.,  Mich,  N.  Y.  and  N.  E. 

States   9.00  7.00  4.50  4.50  1.50  .35 

Pa.,  N.  J.,  Ohio,  Ind.  and  111....     7.00  5.50  3.50  3.50  1.00  .35 

All  Central  and  Southern  States    5.00  3.50  2.50  2.50  .75  .25 

FOX,   SILVER 

Dark  200.00  @  1000.00 

Pale 100.00  @   300.00 

LYNX 

N.  W.  Canada  and  Alaska 12.00      8.00    5.00    5.00    2.50      .50 

Eastern  Canada  and   Northern 
U.   S 10.00      6.00    4.00    4.00    2.00      .50 

MARTEN 
Alaska,   Labrador   and   N.   W., 

Dark   25.00    15.00  10.00  8.00  3.00  1.00 

Alaska  and  N.  W.,  Pale 6.00      4.00    2.50  2.00  1.00  .50 

Eastern  Can.  and  U.  S.,  Dark. .  12.00      8.00    5.00  4.00  2.00  .75 

Eastern  Can.  and  U.  S.,  Pale. .    3.00      2.00    1.00  1.00  .60  .25 


COMPARATIVE   VALUES 


483 


FISHER 

Dark  Brown  Pale 

E.  U.  S.  and  N.  Canada 25.00    30.00  10.00  15.00  6.00    9.00 

Pacific  Coast 15.00    20.00    5.00  10.00  3.00    5.00 


MUSKRAT 


N.  Y.,  Pa..  N.  J.,  New  England 

and  East  Canada 

Mich.,  So.  Wis.,  Ohio,  Ind.,  IlL 

and  W.  Va 

Cent,  and  S.  Ohio,  Ind.,  Ills.,  W. 

Va.,   Ky 

Cent,  and  So.  Pa.,  N.  J.,  Del. 

and   Md 

Va.,  Carolinas,  Tenn 

Mo.,    Ark.,    Kans.    and    Pacific 

Coast 

Wis.,  Minn.,  Iowa,  Neb 

Black 


Large  Small 
Spring  Winter  Fall  Fall  Kitts 


.48 

.48 

.42 

.42 
.40 

.38 
.40 
.55 


.38 

.38 

.32 

.32 
.30 

.28 
.30 
.45 


.20 

.20 

.18 

.18 
.15 

.15 
.15 

.20 


.05 

.05 

.05 

.05 
.04 

.04 
.04 

.08 


MINK 

Large  Med.  Small 
No.  1- 


No.  2  No.  3  No.  4 


East  Can.,  New  Eng.  and  No. 

N.  Y 5.00 

N.  Y.,  No.  Pa.  and  No.  N.  J. . .  4.50 

Minn.,  No.  Wis.  and  No.  Mich.  4.50 

Wis.,  No.  Iowa  and  Dakotas. . .  3.50 

Mich.,  No.  O.,  No.  Ind.,  No.  111.  3.25 
So.  Pa.,  So.  N.  J.,  Del.,  Md.  and 

W.   Va 3.25 

Va.  and  No.  Car 3.00 

B.  C.  and  Alaska  Coast 3.00 

So.  O.,  So.  Ind.,  111.  and  Ky. . . .  2.75 
So.  Iowa,  Neb.,  Kans.  and  No. 

Mo 2.75 

Pacific    Coast    and    Rocky    Mt. 

States  2.75 

So.  Car.,  Tenn.,  Miss.,  Ala.  and 

Ga 2.50 

So.  Mo.,  Ark.,  Okla.,  Tex.,  La- 

and  Fla 2.25 


3.50 
3.25 
3.25 
2.50 
2.25 


2.50 
2.25 
2.25 
1.75 
1.50 


2.50 
2.25 
2.25 
1.75 
1.50 


2.25  1.50  1.50 

2.00  1.50  1.50 

2.00  1.50  1.50 

1.75  1.35  1.35 

1.75  1.35  1.36 

1.75  1.35  1.35 

1.65  1.25  1.25 

1.60  1.10  1.10 


.75 
.60 
.60 
.60 
.60 


.25 
.25 
.25 
.20 
.20 


.60  ^0 

.40  .20 

.40  .20 

.40  .20 

.40  .20 

.40  .20 

.40  .20 

.35  .15 


i84 


COMPARATIVE  VALUES 


OTTER                          Large  Med.  Small 

No.  1 No.  2  No.  3  No.  4 

Eastern  U.  S.  and  Canada 12.00  8.00    5.00  5.00    2.50    1.00 

Northwestern  and  Pacific  Coast  10.00  7.00    4.00  4.00    2.00    1.00 

Western  and  Southwestern 10.00  7.00    4.00  4.00    2.00    1.00 

Virginia  and  No.  Car 10.00  7.00    4.00  4.00    2.00    1.00 

Ga.,  Fla.,  Ala.,  La.  and  S.  Car..     7.00  5.00    3.00  3.00    1.50      .75 

RACCOON 

Minn.,  Wis.,  Daks 4.00  3.00    2.00  2.25      .50      .15 

N.  Y.,  New  England,  Can.  and 

Mich 3.25  2.25     1.25  1.50      .35      .15 

Pa.,  N.  J.,  No.  Ohio,  Ind.  and  Ills.    3.00  2.00    1.00  1.25      .30      .10 

Iowa,  Kans.,  Nebr.  and  No.  Mo.     3.00  2.00    1.00  1.25      .30      .10 

So.  Ohio,  Ind.,  111.,  W.  Va 2.25  1.25      .75  1.00      .25      .10 

Ky.,   Tenn.,   Virginia,    No.    and 

So.  Car.  and  N.  Ga 2.00  1.16      .60  .75      .25      .10 

So.  Ga.,  Fla.,  Ala.,  Miss.,  Tex. 

and  La 1.50  1.00      .50  .60      .20      .10 

Extra  Dark  Colors 3.00  @  6.00 

SKUNK  No.  1  No.  2  No.  3  No.  4 

N.  Y.,  Pa.,  New  Eng.  and  Can..  4.00  2.75     1.50      .75 

N.  J.,  No.  Ohio,  Mich,  No.  Ind. 

and  Ills 4.00  2.75     1.50      .75 

Kans.,  Neb.,  No.  Mo 8.75  2.50    1.25      .65 

Cent.  O.,  Ind.,  Ills.,  W.  Va.  and 

Md 3.75  2.50    1.25      .65 

So.  Ohio,  Ind.,  Ills,  and  So.  Mo.  3.25  2.25     1.15      .60 

Ky.,  Tenn.,  Ark.,  Va.  and  N.  C.  3.00  2.00    1.00      .50 

Ga.,  Fla.,  Ala.  and  other  South- 
ern  States 2.50  1.50      ,75      ,40 

Large   Western,  Long  Narrow 

Stripe,   prime 2.00  @  3.00 

WOLF,   TIMBER 

Northern,  cased 7.00  5.00    3.75  3.75     1.00      .25 

Western,  cased 4.00  3.00    2.00  2.00      .75      .25 

WOLF,   PRAIRIE 

Canada  7.00  5.00    3.00  3.00    1.00      .25 

N.  Rocky  Mts.  and  N.  Prairie 

States   5.00  3.50    2.25  2.25      .75      .25 

Cent.  Rocky  Mt.  and  Ct.  Prairie 

States   4.00  3.00     2.00  2.00       .60       .25 

Southwestern    2.00  1.25      .75  .75      .35      .l" 


The  natural  "brushes,"  or  bushy  tails  of  several 
species  of  fur-bearing  animals  constitute  special  arti- 
cles of  varied  utility  and  value  in  the  fur  trade,  other 
manufacturing  industries,  and  highly  prized  trophies 
when  secured  by  sportsmen  who  prefer  to  follow  a  live 
fox  rather  than  an  anise  scented  drag. 

Tails  are  put  up  and  sold  in  bundles  of  forty,  called 
a  "timber." 

Mink  tails  deservedly  rank  as  exceptionally  hand- 
some when  properly  prepared  for  the  manufacture  of 
costly  collars  and  borders ;  when  intended  for  either  pur- 
pose, the  tails  are  split  open  along  the  center  of  the  under 
side,  spread  flat — twice  the  natural  width — and  then 
sewed  together  lengthwise  of  the  tails  to  the  requisite 
number  to  make  either  specified  article  of  apparel;  the 
strips  thus  produced  vary  from  five  to  eight  inches  in 
width;  one  width  serves  as  a  border,  two  widths  for  a 
superb  collar ;  whole  tails  are  used  to  finish  ends  of  boas, 
edges  of  capes,  trimmings  for  hats,  and  in  other  ways. 

Fisher  tails,  which  are  black  and  glossy,  are  used 
the  same  as  mink,  with  excellent  effect. 

The  fur  of  the  stoat,  commonly  known  as  ermine,  is 
snowy  white  except  at  the  tips  of  the  tail,  which  is  a  deep 
black ;  the  plain,  flat  white  fur  is  rendered  attractive  and 
popular  by  inserting  in  it  the  black  tips  of  the  tails  at 
regular  intervals. 

Sable  tails  are  made  up  similar  to  mink  tails,  but  are 
usually  very  expensive.  Squirrel  tails  are  used  split  and 
uncut,  and  the  perfectly  matched  dark  and  light  shades 
of  grey  are  effective  as  borders  and  for  embellishing  lin- 

485 


486  BRUSHES 

ings ;  entire  boas  are  occasionally  made  of  whole  or  split 
squirrel  tails. 

Fox,  wolf,  wild  cat,  wolverine  and  raccoon  tails, 
which  are  long,  bushy  and  varied  in  color,  are  frequently 
used  in  finishing  boas,  scarfs,  muffs,  and  ornamenting 
fine  sleigh  and  carriage  robes ;  for  the  latter  purpose  the 
tails  are  associated  with  skins  of  the  same  or  other  ani- 
mals, producing  harmonizing  or  contrasting  color  effects 
as  desired. 

Raccoon  tails  are  worn  to  some  extent  by  hunters 
and  trappers  attached  to  and  pendant  from  their  fur 
caps ;  it  is  a  dangerous  fad,  however,  as  the  wearers  risk 
being  shot  in  mistake  for  the  animal  whose  caudal  ap- 
pendage is  so  proudly  flaunted — the  error  while  not 
pointing  a  moral  would  constitute  a  different  finis. 

Grey  fox,  wolf  and  raccoon  tails  attached  to  han- 
dles of  suitable  length  make  good  dusters.  In  the  good 
old  times  grey  or  red  fox  tails,  tied  to  short  rods,  were 
used  by  conscientious  deacons  to  waken  drowsy  church- 
men. 

Glossy  hairs  taken  from  the  tails  of  the  mink  and 
sable  are  used  to  a  moderate  extent  in  the  manufacture 
of  artificial  flies  for  luring  trout  and  salmon  from  their 
watery  retreats. 

The  bushy  tails  of  many  fur-bearers  are  chiefly  use- 
ful and  valuable  for  the  manufacture  of  artists'  brushes 
in  all  grades. 

These  hairs,  preliminary  to  brush  making,  pass 
through  several  operations;  they  are  first  clipped  from 
the  skin,  and  then,  consecutively,  assorted  according  to 
size,  color  and  part  of  tail  from  which  they  are  cut,  those 
taken  from  the  tip  of  the  tail  constituting  a  special  as- 


BRUSHES  487 

sortment;  the  hairs,  which  are  naturally  curved,  are 
then  straightened,  after  which  they  are  cleansed  to  re- 
move oil  and  dust,  and  are  again  assorted  according  to 
length  and  individual  fineness ;  these  are  ready  for  mak- 
ing up  natural,  but  a  considerable  part  of  the  collection 
has  to  be  dyed  to  secure  uniformity  of  color. 

Hairs  from  the  tails  of  the  common  grey  squirrel 
are  used  in  immense  quantities  in  the  manufacture  of 
low  and  medium  grade  brushes  for  water  color  painting; 
these  brushes  are  sold  and  popularly  known  as  camel's 
hair,  a  deception  in  name  only,  as  the  hair  of  the  camel  is 
not  adapted  to  the  manufacture  of  brushes  of  any  kind. 
Hairs  from  the  tip  of  the  squirrel's  tail  make  good  gild- 
ing brushes.  Squirrel  tails  are  usually  cheap,  one  to  two 
cents  each,  and  from  five  to  eight  million  tails  are  annu- 
ally collected  in  Russia  and  Siberia,  which  are  the  coun- 
tries of  dependable  supply. 

Artists'  wash  brushes  and  blenders  in  flat  and  round 
shapes,  and  in  various  sizes;  extra  large  brushes  re- 
quired by  pianoforte  makers ;  very  soft  shaving  brushes ; 
and  smaller  brushes  for  sundry  purposes,  are  made  from 
the  long  hairs  taken  from  the  tail  and  parts  of  the  pelt 
of  the  badger ;  the  hairs  of  this  animal  are  greyish  black, 
white,  and  tipped  with  black. 

Hairs  from  the  tails  of  the  Russian  and  German 
polecat  are  used  in  making  serviceable  brushes  for  art- 
ists and  sign  painters,  and  are  generally  employed  by 
the  latter  in  laying  gold  leaf  on  glass  and  wood.  Russian 
polecat  tails,  though  sold  as  sable,  are  cheaper  than  the 
German. 

Skunk  tails  are  frequently  used  instead  of  polecat. 


488  BRUSHES 

both  animals  belong  to  the  same  family,  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  varnish  brushes. 

Good  stiff  brushes  for  water  color  painting  and 
lettering  are  made  from  selected  hairs  cut  from  black 
sable  tails;  and  very  fine  "pencil  points,"  water  color 
brushes,  are  manufactured  from  the  long  flexible  hairs 
characterizing  the  bushy  tails  of  Russian  and  Hudson's 
Bay  sables.  Black  sable  tails  are  worth  from  ten  dollars 
upwards  per  timber,  forty  tails,  and  usually  about  two 
ounces  of  hair,  desirable  sorts,  can  be  cut  from  a  timber 
of  tails. 

The  finest  and  most  costly  brushes  for  artists'  uses 
are  made  of  the  red  hairs  cut  from  the  tail  of  the  ko- 
linsky, a  Siberian  animal ;  tails  of  this  class  at  times  ap- 
proximate fifty  dollars  per  timber,  or  more  than  twenty 
dollars  an  ounce  for  the  hair. 

Some  low  priced  brushes  for  ordinary  work  are 
made  of  hairs  taken  from  the  pelt  of  the  common  goat. 
Japanese  artists  use  brushes  made  of  deer  hair. 

Brush  makers  obtain  rather  large  quantities  of  hair 
for  the  manufacture  of  brushes  from  another  and  ex- 
tremely strange  source,  namely,  the  interior  surface  of 
the  ear  of  the  ox,  which  is  quite  densely  lined  with  hairs 
ranging  in  length  from  two  to  four  and  one-half  inches, 
and  shading  in  color  from  light  to  dark  brown;  nature 
provides  the  patient  ox  with  this  rather  profuse  growth 
of  hair  as  an  effective  protection  against  gnats  and  flies 
which  are  predisposed  to  lay  their  eggs  in  the  dark  re- 
cesses of  the  spacious  bovine  auricle.  Brushes  made  of 
the  longer  of  these  ox  hairs  are  used  by  carriage  paint- 
ers; those  composed  of  the  shorter  hairs,  from  two  to 
two  and  one-half  inches  in  length,  are  employed  by 


BRUSHES  489 

decorators  and  artistic  sign  painters.  Prices  vary,  but 
ox-ear  hairs  are  worth,  approximately,  eight  dollars  per 
pound.  All  tails  worn  as  parts  of  fur  garments,  muffs  and 
neck  pieces,  are  not  nature-grown  caudal  appendanges; 
many  of  them  are  manufactured  tails  produced  by  a 
simple  mechanical  device,  made  to  supersede  hand  labor, 
known  as  a  tail  spinning  machine;  strips  of  fur,  of  the 
proper  length  and  width,  are  attached  to  a  cord  on  the 
machine  which  revolves  at  high  speed  spinning  the  fur 
into  an  excellent  representation  of  a  tail ;  these  manufac- 
tured tails,  both  as  lower  grade  articles  and  imitations  of 
more  costly  sorts,  are  spun  in  very  large  quantities  when 
tail  trimming  is  in  fashion. 

HEADS 

As  a  fur-skin  with  a  tail  but  lacking  a  head  would 
appear  deficient  at  the  more  important  extreme,  heads 
and  tails  are  equally  popular ;  but  as  the  skins  sent  to 
market  have  tails  but  are  without  heads,  all  of  the  latter 
required  to  meet  the  demands  of  fashion  have  to  be 
made ;  the  work  is  done  by  hand  and  constitutes  a  distinct 
branch  of  the  fur  business,  a  number  of  concerns  being 
engaged  exclusively  in  the  manufacture  of  fur  heads, 
ranging  in  size  from  that  of  the  fox  to  the  weasel. 
These  artificial  heads  are  made  over  cork,  celluloid  or 
composition  skulls,  all  of  which  are  light  in  weight,  cov- 
ered with  fur  of  the  animal  represented,  and  finished 
with  glass  eyes  and  colored  noses  and,  when  open- 
mouthed,  painted  tongues.  Some  skins,  worn  singly  as 
neck  pieces,  are  made  "complete  and  entire"  by  the  addi- 
tion of  artificial  paws  and  claws,  composed  of  fur,  cel- 
luloid or  horn. 


TOYLAND 

Fur-bearers  contribute  in  various  ways  to  the  pass- 
ing pleasure,  entertainment  and  comfort  of  the  little 
folks,  providing  them  with  pets,  warm  jackets,  coats, 
neckwear  and  gloves,  and,  to  them,  intensely  interesting 
toys  of  various  kinds,  particularly  small  animals,  such 
as  tiny  bears,  cats,  tigers,  dogs,  woolly  horses,  and 
drumming  rabbits.  These  furry  toys,  with  which  we 
are  all  familiar  because  we  were  once  children,  and  chil- 
dren and  toys  are  omnipresent,  are  chiefly  made  of  white 
coney  fur  obtained  in  Poland,  and  used  either  natural  or 
dyed;  many  toys  are  made  of  English  and  Scotch  lamb 
skins,  and  sundry  furs,  pieces  serving  excellently  for 
the  purpose,  but  none  is  used  in  as  large  quantity  as  th« 
low  cost  Polish  coney — and  cost  is  considered,  as  toys  in 
children's  hands  are  short-lived. 

FUR  CASH 

Skins  of  various  species  of  fur-bearing  animals 
were  used  as  mediums  of  current  exchange  centuries  be- 
fore mints  or  coinage  or  papyrus  promises  to  pay  were 
dreamed  of,  or  stamped  money  began  its  march  from 
sufficing  simplicity  to  the  present  complicated  marvel 
which  no  one  fully  understands;  the  ancient  medium, 
fur-skins,  though  supposedly  superseded  by  coins  and 
paper,  has  never  passed  wholly  out  "of  circulation. 

Chinese  historians  assert  that  small,  square  pieces 
of  deer  skin  freely  circulated  as  money  in  the  Celestial 
Empire,  a  vast  territory,  ages  before  the  round  and 
weighty  trade  dollar  of  United  States  coinage  was  in- 
flicted upon  that  great  realm  of  badly  mixed  fact  and 
fiction. 

490 


FUR   CASH  491 

Early  Dutch  settlers  who  camped  on  Manhattan 
Island,  Communipaw  and  all  along  the  Hudson  River 
as  far  north  as  the  present  city  of  Albany,  accepted 
beaver,  raccoon,  muskrat  and  other  peltries  from  the 
Indians  in  lieu  of  the  gold  pieces  of  ancient  Amsterdam ; 
and  while  they  were  eager  to  obtain  as  many  of  these 
tokens  as  poor  Lo  could  trap,  beg  or  surreptitiously  bor- 
row, they  were  careful  to  appraise  the  currency  at  as 
low  a  figure  as  possible,  and  the  merchandise  given  in 
exchange  at  full  frontier  general  store  values.  In  all 
the  years  of  his  association  with  pale  faces  unimagina- 
tive Lo  has  had  the  misfortune  incident  to  dealing  with 
traders  who  have  readily  taken  his  ''cash  money"  in  pel- 
tries at  heavy  discounts  on  market  quotations. 

The  skin  of  the  beaver  is  entitled  to  rank  as  the 
standard  dollar  in  peltry  currency,  as  from  the  earliest 
period  of  barter  in  America  it  was  accepted  as  legal  ten- 
der to  that  amount,  and  is  still  at  par  or  above  at  trading 
posts.  Indians  used  the  buffalo  hide  as  cash,  until  coin- 
age ceased. 

The  finely  furred  skin  of  the  raccoon  is  the  small 
coin  of  some  Southern  sections ;  it  will  buy  a  glass  of  im- 
ported Jersey  lightning  or  domestic  moonshine  moisture 
at  almost  any  saloon  in  Kentucky ;  general  store  dealers 
in  Alabama  and  other  Southern  States  formerly  accept- 
ed it  as  good  for  from  ten  to  fifty  cents  in  exchange  for 
either  wet  or  dry  goods ;  it  also  passed  the  same  as  coin 
in  purchasing  snuff,  tobacco  and  "store  clothes"  in  nearly 
all  districts  where  the  animal  abounded. 

In  some  parts  of  the  West  where  burrowing  squir- 
rels were  numerous  and  troublesome,  especially  large 
wheat-producing  districts,  a  small  bounty  was  paid  for 


492  FUR   CASH 

each  squirrel  that  was  killed,  and  as  the  tails  were  gen- 
erally accepted  as  vouchers  of  squirrel  slaughter,  these 
tails  freely  circulated  as  money  until  they  were  finally 
banked  with  the  State  official  designated  to  redeem  them 
by  paying  the  bounty;  their  face  value  was  five  cents 
each,  and  they  should  be  used,  instead  of  the  lamented 
bison,  to  adorn  the  modern  nickel. 

Where  a  bounty  has  been  paid  on  wolves,  the  skins 
have  been  used  as,  good  for  thirty  dollars  each. 

For  some  time  a  bounty  of  fifty  cents  was  paid  for 
each  woodchuck  killed  in  two  adjoining  towns  in  Hart- 
ford County,  Connecticut,  one  town  accepting  the  ears 
and  the  other  the  tail  as  evidence  of  the  death  of  the 
woodchuck;  during  the  bounty  period  the  ears  and  tails 
of  unfortunate  Hartford  County  woodchucks  circulated 
as  cash  on  a  par  with  the  silver  half-dollar,  and  might 
still  form  an  important  part  of  the  local  currency  except 
for  the  accidental  discovery  of  the  fact  that  sharp  Yan- 
kee boys  were  obtaining  two  bounties  on  each  woodchuck 
by  depositing  the  ears  with  the  treasurer  of  one  town, 
and  the  tail  of  the  same  chuck  with  the  public  cashier 
of  the  other.  The  boys  considered  their  method  of  bank- 
ing as  more  profitable  than  simple  barter,  but  as  the 
town  officials  did  not  favor  junior  enterprise,  woodchuck 
tails  and  ears  were  withdrawn  from  circulation  by  dis- 
continuance of  the  bounty. 

Fur  cash  was  not  easily  counterfeited;  it  might  be 
too  green  or  a  great  deal  too  dry  to  have  just  the  right 
ring ;  some  of  it  having  been  minted  with  a  shotgun  had 
holes  in  it,  but  they  could  not  be  "plugged"  or  concealed ; 
and  there  were  no  twenty-cent  pieces  to  be  passed  as 
quarters  upon  the  unwary. 


SACRED  ANIMALS 

Some  of  the  fur-bearers  were  considered  sacred 
otherwise  than  as  money. 

At  Maru  and  Miyajima,  Japan,  the  small  native 
deer  is  regarded  as  sacred ;  the  animal  is  tame  and  docile. 

The  fox,  universally  prized  for  its  handsome  coat 
of  fur,  is  regarded  as  a  divine  creature  in  China ;  when 
the  animal  attains  the  age  of  fifty  years  it  is  said  to  be 
able  to  assume  the  form  of  a  woman,  at  one  hundred 
years  to  change  to  a  beautiful  girl,  and  at  one  thousand 
years  is  admitted  into  paradise  and  becomes  a  celestial 
being.  The  fox  was  formerly  adored  by  the  Peruvians, 
and  statues  of  the  animal  were  placed  in  many  of  their 
temples. 

The  badger,  was  held  as  sacred  by  the  Chinese,  was 
credited  with  possessing  the  power  of  changing  its  form 
and  character  at  will. 

Wolves  were  generally  worshipped  at  ancient  Ly- 
copolis,  and  when  one  of  the  animals  died  its  bones  were 
very  carefully  embalmed ;  mummies  of  wolves  have  been 
found  in  the  tombs  in  the  mountains  above  the  city. 

Certain  species  of  African  monkey  are  revered  by 
the  natives,  but  are  not  treated  as  divine;  the  simple 
minded  Africans  believe  that  the  souls  of  deceased  rela- 
tives undergo  a  mild  process  of  transmigration  and  con- 
tinue their  earthly  existence  by  taking  up  their  abode 
in  the  bodies  of  monkeys;  owing  to  this  belief  and  the 
hope  of  each  good  African  of  becoming  a  sacred  monkey 
after  death,  the  animals  are  not  allowed  to  be  killed. 
This  view  may  have  supplied  the  basis  upon  which  the 
higher  critics  erected  their  filmy  dogma  of  evolution, 

493 


494  SACRED   ANIMALS 

and  it  ought  not  to  be  doubted  that  if  a  man,  even  though 
black,  can  transmigrate  into  a  monkey,  that  same  mon- 
key, at  least,  should  experience  no  great  difficulty  in  evo- 
luting  into  a  man. 

The  entellus,  another  species  of  monkey,  ranks  as 
sacred  in  India,  and  is  adored  in  Egypt  and  protected  by 
a  large  number  of  devotees  and  priestly  servitors. 

There  was  a  time,  however  strange  it  may  appear, 
when  the  common  house  cat,  regardless  of  age  or  color, 
reigned  and  ruled  as  a  deity  at  Rome,  and  in  consequence 
enjoyed  the  privilege  of  holding  midnight  serenades  dur- 
ing the  full  term  of  its  nine  lives  undisturbed  by  bricks, 
bottles  or  other  missiles. 

Tabby  was  also  revered  by  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
and  was  regarded  as  sacred  to  Isis,  or  the  moon,  and  its 
worship  embraced  rites  of  peculiar  interest.  The  bull 
was  also  a  sacred  animal  in  Egypt — there  have  been 
many  ecclesiastical  bulls,  not  identified  with  heathen 
lands,  which  have  been  obeyed,  if  not  worshipped. 

Certain  animals  are  regarded  as  sacred,  and  others, 
including  the  bear  and  beaver,  are  worshipped  by  North 
American  Indians;  the  ceremonies  connected  with  this 
worship  have  been  greatly  modified,  and  are  not  so  gen- 
erally observed  as  formerly.  Indians  of  several  tribes 
consider  the  moose  sacred  in  a  limited  sense  only,  as 
they  do  not  hesitate  to  kill  it ;  the  moose  is,  in  their  esti- 
mation, a  sacrificial  rather  than  a  sacred  animal,  and  the 
manner  in  which  the  Indians  dispose  of  the  carcass  is 
suggestive  of  the  "burnt  offering"  prescribed  by  Moses. 
When  Indians  capture  a  moose  they  cut  up  the  carcass 
and  cast  some  of  the  choicer  portions  of  the  flesh  into 
their  campfire  as  a  thanksgiving  offering  to  the  Good 


SACRED   ANIMALS  495 

Spirit  for  favoring  them  with  success  in  the  chase;  the 
tongue,  liver,  kidneys  and  part  of  the  breast  of  the  ani- 
mal are  eaten  as  soon  as  possible,  and  the  other  parts  of 
the  flesh,  properly  cooked,  are  devoured  in  haste — very 
like  the  Passover — as  the  rule  governing  such  feasts  re- 
quires that  the  entire  moose,  except  the  parts  offered  as 
a  sacrifice,  must  be  consumed  at  a  single  meal.  Buffalo 
flesh  "burned  with  fire,"  was  also  used  as  a  thank-offer- 
ing on  particular  occasions. 

Alaska  Indians  evidence  a  strange  reverence  for  the 
"spirits"  of  departed  fur-bearers,  including  the  bear, 
wolf,  beaver  and  fox,  and  rudely  carved  representations 
of  these  and  other  animals  are  placed  upon  the  top  of 
posts  erected  in  front  of  their  huts,  or  common  burial 
places. 

Customs  change  as  age  succeeds  age;  today  the 
multitude,  embracing  women  and  men,  instead  of  rev- 
erencing fur-bearers  merely  dote  on  them — a  mild  order 
of  worship — regarding  the  flesh  of  some  of  them  and  the 
furry  coats  of  all  as  sacred  to  their  appetites  and  pride 
of  attire.  Opinion  is  divided  respecting  the  status  of  the 
raven-hued  cat;  children,  and  a  few  to  whom  children 
are  unknown,  fondle  and  seemingly  adore,  others  regard 
the  cat  of  this  particular  color  as  an  evil  rather  than  a 
good  spirit,  but  surely  a  spirit — superstition  may  under- 
go mystical  transformation,  but  will  not  down. 

Cut  jFur 

Fur-felt  hat  manufacturing,  a  distinct  and  import- 
ant industry  in  the  United  States,  England,  Germany 
and  France,  regularly  requires  a  large  proportion  of  the 
fur  skins  annually  procured  in  the  mild  and  temperate 


4»6  CUT  FUR 

sections  of  production;  considered  from  the  standpoint 
of  value  as  expressed  in  dollars  the  skins  used  entire  in 
manufacturing  coats,  jackets,  muffs,  robes  and  similar 
articles,  rank  first ;  but  in  number  of  skins  the  consump- 
tion in  the  felt  hat  making  is  much  the  larger,  exceeding 
a  total  of  thirty  million  pelts. 

In  hatting  the  fur  is  not  worked  up  on  the  skin  but 
is  cut  from  it ;  in  the  market  of  initial  sale  these  pelts  are 
classed  as  "cutting  skins,"  and  the  cut  product,  fully 
prepared  for  felting  is  known  as  "cut  fur,"  and  quite 
commonly  designated  in  the  hatting  trade  as  "hatters' 
fur."  The  business  does  not  constitute  a  branch  or  part 
of  the  "furrier's  trade,"  but  is  conducted  in  every  detail 
by  a  wholly  disconnected  group  of  merchants,  operating 
in  two  classes,  importers  and  cutters;  the  former  in  a 
few  instances  conduct  both  divisions,  but  all  handle,  in 
furs,  only  cutting  skins  or  cut  fur — importers  of  cut  fur 
also,  as  a  rule,  carry  general  supplies — required  by  hat 
manufacturers.  Only  the  soft  under  fur  is  used  in  felt- 
ing, all  the  coarse  hairs  and  the  leather  being  discarded. 

"Carroting"  is  the  first  operation  in  the  work  of 
preparing  fur  for  hatters'  uses,  this  simple  process  is 
effected  by  brushing  the  fur,  while  on  the  skin  with  a  so- 
lution of  quicksilver  and  nitric  acid,  termed  carrot,  to 
kill  the  natural  oil  in  the  fur  and  thus  facilitate  succeed- 
ing operations  in  which  water  is  freely  used;  following 
the  act  of  brushing,  the  skins  are  spread  out  flat  to  dry, 
either  in  the  open  air  or  a  room  heated  by  steam ;  dried 
in  the  former  way  the  fur  becomes  white,  but  when  the 
drying  is  effected  by  artificial  heat  the  fur  assumes  a  yel- 
low or  carrot-like  hue ;  these  color  conditions  are  always 
noted  in  the  brand,  or  mark,  upon  the  packages  of  pre- 


CUT   FUR  497 

pared  fur  by  abbreviations,  W.  C,  for  white,  and  Y.  C, 
for  yellow  carrot. 

The  operation  of  carroting  is  occasionally  omitted 
in  the  manipulation  of  beaver  and  one  or  two  other  furs, 
but  this  "raw  stock,"  so-called,  does  not  felt  readily  ex- 
cept when  mixed  with  carroted  fur,  and  even  then  is  not 
altogether  satisfactory,  as  it  works  out  to  the  surface  of 
the  finished  felt. 

As  the  presence  of  mercury  in  the  carroting  solu- 
tion, and  mercurial  vapor,  and  dust  in  the  drying  room, 
constitute  a  menace  to  the  health  of  the  workers,  a  dif- 
ferent preparatory  method  was  perfected  in  Germany  in 
1875;  by  this  process  the  skins  are  first  saturated  with 
molasses,  then  dipped  in  a  weak  solution  of  nitric  acid, 
and  then  washed  in  soft  water  and  allowed  to  dry  slowly ; 
the  washing  and  drying  are  repeated  until  the  fur  is 
thoroughly  purified.  Fur  carroted  in  this  way  felts  as 
easily  and  perfectly  as  that  treated  with  mercury.  When 
carroted  skins  have  become  perfectly  dry,  they  are 
brushed  to  remove  all  particles  of  dust,  and  to  straighten 
the  hair  so  that  it  may  be  readily  cut  from  the  skin, 
which  is  the  next  operation.  Cutting,  formerly  done  by 
manual  labor,  is  performed  by  a  special  machine  of  great 
power  and  high  speed,  which  shaves  the  fur  from  the 
entire  pelt  without  disarranging  its  form — the  fur  passes 
out  of  the  machine  apparently  exactly  as  it  entered,  a 
perfect  pelt,  unchanged,  untouched,  but  really  only  fur, 
the  leather,  reduced  to  a  countless  number  of  fine 
threads,  having  dropped  to  the  floor.  As  the  fur  is  cut  it 
is  carried  forward  upon  a  moving  endless  apron,  and 
while  in  motion  is  separated  into  the  three  principal  di- 
visions, back,  belly  and  sides,  by  experienced  operators.. 


498  CUT   FUR 

and  deftly  dropped  into  bags  stationed  at  the  sides  and 
forward  end  of  the  revolving  apron.  All  fur  does  not 
felt  with  equal  facility,  or  produce  felt  of  the  same  fine- 
ness, softness  or  durability;  there  are  marked  differ- 
ences even  in  the  fur  cut  from  the  same  skin;  fur  cut 
from  the  back  is  the  darkest  and  strongest,  and  when 
taken  from  the  pelts  of  land  animals  is  also  the  best 
grade;  fur  from  the  sides  is  lighter  in  color  and  some- 
what lower  in  quality;  belly  fur  is  the  lightest  in  color, 
but  not  uniformly  identical  in  quality — it  is  the  finest  or 
best  when  cut  from  beaver,  nutria  and  muskrat  skins, 
amphibious  animals,  and  lowest  in  grade  when  taken 
from  land  animals,  such  as  the  rabbit  and  hare.  Sepa- 
rate grades  of  fur  are  cut  from  the  tails  of  various  ani- 
mals, and  the  cheeks  of  the  beaver,  the  latter  is  of  su- 
perior quality;  low  grade  fur  is  cut  from  small  pieces 
and  scraps — the  waste  in  furriers'  shops.  Belly-fur  is 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  light  colored  hats ;  fur  from 
other  parts  of  the  pelt  is  suitable  for  making  hats  dyed 
any  desired  color. 

Fur  of  the  North  American  beaver  is  superior  to  all 
others  for  making  fine,  durable  felt  hats,  but  is  too  ex- 
pensive for  extensive  use;  it  is  sometimes  mixed,  in 
small  amount,  with  other  furs  to  improve  the  stock; 
nutria,  fur  of  the  South  American  coypu,  ranks  next  to 
beaver  in  every  particular. 

The  fur  used  in  greatest  quantity  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  felt  hats  is  cut  from  the  skins  of  wild  rabbits  and 
hares  procured  by  the  million  in  Australia,  England, 
Scotland,  New  Zealand,  Russia  and  the  United  States, 
and  domestic  French  conies ;  in  these  sorts,  English  and 
Scotch  rank  as  best  and  strongest. 


CUT   FUR  499 

Cut  fur  is  known  in  all  markets  of  the  world  by  cer- 
tain marks,  consisting  of  symbols  and  abbreviations — 
the  symbols  are  a  single  circle,  two  circles  and  three  cir- 
cles drawn  one  within  another,  the  reading  being — sin- 
gle, double  and  tripple  ring;  these  symbols  are  used  to 
brand  the  three  choicest  grades  of  fur  cut  from  the 
backs  of  Scotch,  Russian  and  other  hares.  Abbrevia- 
tions used  to  designate  the  animal  and  the  part  of  the 
pelt  from  which  the  fur  is  cut,  are :  C.  B.,  coney  backs ; 
B.  C.  B.,  best  coney  backs ;  B.  H.  W.,  best  hares  wool ; 
H.  S.,  hare  sides ;  R.  B.,  rabbit  backs ;  B.  H.  B.,  best  hare 
backs.  Hatters'  fur  is  cut  in  the  United  States,  England, 
France  and  Belgium. 

Cut  hairs  are  also  utilized  in  the  fur  and  other  in- 
dustries to  a  considerable  extent;  hairs  suitable  for  the 
various  purposes  are  cut  from  the  coats  of  both  fur-bear- 
ers and  hair-wearers,  and  very  often  constitute  former 
waste  transformed  into  new  and  important  products  of 
considerable  value. 

French  bristles  and  the  white  hairs  of  the  badger, 
skunk  and  grey  fox  are  used  to  beautify  the  plain  sur- 
faces of  dark  furs  in  which  they  are  inserted;  this  is  a 
balancing  act,  as  other  skins,  especially  seal,  have  all  the 
hairs  cut  out  so  that  the  beauty  of  the  fur  may  appear. 
Reindeer  hair,  which  is  extremely  light  in  weight,  packed 
in  water-tight  containers  make  superior  life  preservers ; 
deer  hair  is  an  excellent  substance  for  stuffing  couches; 
hair  cut  from  several  species  are  employed  in  filling  mat- 
tresses— ^but  you  cannot  always  be  sure  about  it. 

Long  hairs  from  the  manes  and  tails  of  horses,  reg- 
ularly offered  at  the  minor  sales  in  London,  are  collected 
in  quantity  in  Bavaria  and  Austria,  for  manufacture  in 


500  CUT   FUR 

Switzerland.  These  hairs  are  thoroughly  purified  and 
are  then  woven  into  long  strips  or  braids,  either  singly 
in  black  or  white,  or  the  two  tones  in  combination,  and 
are  then  made  into  ladies*  and  children's  hats  for  sum- 
mer wear.  Bovine  hair  early  displaced  the  straw  of  the 
Egyptians  as  a  binder  in  mortar,  but  in  turn  is  rapidly 
being  superseded  by  cement. 

Human  hair  is  largely  utilized  in  an  exceptional 
number  of  ways  devious  and  doubtful.  A  considerable 
quantity  is  used  in  wisps  and  switches  borrowing  from 
one  sweet  soul  of  a  single  thought  to  augment  the  golden 
glory  of  another.  Vast  bundles  of  human  hair  cut  from 
weary  and  fevered  crowns  are  patiently  wrought  into 
black,  red,  brown  and  white  wigs  for  the  wigless,  fash- 
ion's devotees,  judges,  actors,  detectives  and  those  stren- 
uously seeking  to  avoid  detection;  and  other  diversely 
delusive  purposes  and  persons. 

The  main  crop  of  raw  material,  known  in  the  nat- 
ural connection  as  a  queue,  from  cauda,  a  tail,  is  of  celes- 
tial origin,  being  matured  in  China ;  formerly  the  supply 
was  small,  queues  being  regarded  as  sacred,  but  in  re- 
cent years  devotion  to  the  almighty  dollar  having  meas- 
urably superseded  the  worship  of  Buddha,  the  harvest 
has  been  large — all  exported  to  Europe  and  America, 
there  being  no  demand  for  domestic  consumption. 

FEATHERS 

The  muff,  whether  round  or  flat,  would  be  rather 
thin  and  flimsy  if  composed  only  of  the  visible  fur  and 
inner  lining  of  silk,  and  to  create  and  retain  the  desired 
form,  a  rather  thick,  soft  body  conforming  to  the  partic- 
ular shape  of  the  muff  is  enclosed  between  the  fur  and 


FEATHERS  501 

lining,  and  is  known  in  the  trade  as  a  muff-bed.  Orig- 
inally the  muff-bed  was  made  of  down  with  a  covering 
of  muslin,  but  in  these  days  of  great  progress  in  most 
"infant  industries"  and  very  high  cost  down,  the  name 
down  muff-bed  is  retained,  but  the  down  is  chiefly  sup- 
plied by  Queen  Hen  and  King  Cotton,  separately  or  in 
combination,  a  substitution  which  enables  manufacturers 
to  sell  muffs  to  certain  retailers  for  "marked  down"  sales. 
President  Harrison  said,  "A  cheap  coat  makes  a 
cheap  man,"  which  may  or  may  not  be  true;  chicken 
feathers  and  cotton  surely  make  a  cheap  muff-bed,  the 
owner,  however,  feels  cheap  only  when  some  of  the 
feathers  work  through  to  the  surface  of  the  muff",  as  they 
sometimes  do,  revealing  the  character  of  the  "down." 

BY-PRODUCTS 

Animals  of  the  lower  order,  broadly  spoken  of  as 
"beasts  that  perish,"  are  herbiverous,  granivorous,  car- 
nivorous, and  otherwise  variously  classified,  but  man  is 
in  a  class  by  himself,  solitary  and  singular,  the  one  and 
only  omniverous  animal.  What  he  cannot  "eat,  drink  or 
put  on"  in  its  natural  state,  he  transforms,  manipulates 
or  transmutes  into  the  medium  of  exchange  wherewith 
to  procure  eatables,  drinkables  and  wearables,  and  in  the 
execution  of  this  exalting  purpose  uses  not  only  the 
manifestly  beautiful  and  serviceable  coat  and  cuticle  but 
every  part  and  fragment  of  all  the  furry  and  f urless  den- 
izens of  earth.  Man  utilizes  the  skin  of  the  beast  pre- 
pared as  fur,  hair,  felt  or  leather  for  the  protection  and 
adornment  of  his  person  from  "head  to  foot";  every 
portion  of  the  flesh  from  tip  to  tip,  both  inclusive,  as  nu- 
tritious or  delectable  food;  the  marrow  as  a  rare  deli- 


603  BY-PRODUCTS 

cacy;  the  bones  changed  into  tools,  buttons  or  charcoal 
for  his  service  and  well-being,  as  poultry  provender  in- 
suring an  increased  egg  output,  or  to  fertilize  the  soil  in 
order  that  it  may  yield  more  abundant  crops  of  grapes 
and  cereals ;  the  odor  sacs  as  pleasing  perfumes ;  galls, 
livers  and  horns  as  remedies  for  ills  to  which  pampered 
stomachs  are  subject ;  the  teeth  as  emblems  of  an  order, 
and  both  the  teeth  and  claws  as  ornaments  and  evidences 
of  skill  and  courage  in  the  chase  or  still  hunt;  and, 
finally,  the  fat  to  make  his  hair  shine,  render  age- 
strained  joints  and  sinews  supple,  protect  his  tools 
against  corrupting  rust,  to  soften  and  prolong  the  life  of 
leather,  lubricate  machinery,  and  to  light  his  hut  or  path- 
way. 

Bear's  grease  was  once  upon  a  time  regarded  as  a 
hair-oil  of  unexampled  value  because  of  the  widely  cir- 
culated rumor  that  it  made  the  hair  grow,  and  was  a 
sure  cure  for  sundry  imaginary  diseases  of  the  human 
scalp.  The  article  ceased  to  be  intensely  popular  some- 
time in  the  latter  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  for  good 
and  sufficient  reasons — the  scarcity  of  fat  bears,  and  the 
fact  revealed  by  analysis  that  nearly  all  bear's  oil  sold  at 
a  fairly  high  price  had  other  than  a  bear  origin,  and  was 
really  a  bare  delusion.  Skunk  oil,  tried  and  purified,  is 
also  used  as  a  lubricant  of  human  locomotive  powers. 

The  skin  (leather)  of  the  rabbit,  nutria  and  other 
animals  from  which  the  fur  has  been  cut  by  a  machine, 
called  a  devil,  for  use  in  hat  making,  was  formerly 
thrown  on  the  refuse  heap,  but  some  years  since  the  dis- 
covery was  made  that  the  skin,  which  comes  through  the 
cutting  machine  a  mass  of  fine  threads,  when  treated  in 
a  certain  way  yielded  an  excellent  gellatine  of  consider- 


BY-PRODUCTS  503 

able  value  for  making  films  of  superior  quality — worth 
for  some  time  upwards  of  one  hundred  dollars  per  ton. 

At  a  later  date  the  waste  discarded  in  the  manu- 
facture of  the  films  was  purchased  by  the  Standard  Oil 
Company,  and  in  combination  with  similar  materials  is 
used  in  lining  barrels  in  which  oil  is  stored  or  trans- 
ported. 

The  shredded  skins  are  also  largely  used  in  making 
a  fine  grade  of  glue. 

Poorly  furred  and  damaged  fur  seal  skins  are  spe- 
cially tanned,  producing  a  beautiful  and  expensive 
leather ;  the  supply  is  small. 

Sheepskins  from  which  the  wool  has  been  shaved, 
are  carefully  tanned  for  the  production  of  the  finest  mo- 
rocco leather,  for  the  manufacture  of  leather  in  excel- 
lent imitation  of  alligator  skins,  and  a  fine  soft  leather 
imitating  cork  used  in  making  hat  sweats. 

Split  sheep  skins  are  finished  as  a  substitute  for 
chamois. 

Goat  skins  prepared  as  parchment  were  used  cen- 
turies ago,  and  many  have  been  preserved  in  perfect 
condition  to  the  present  day ;  beaver  skins  were  similarly 
used  at  a  much  later  date. 

Vellum,  a  finer  material,  is  made  of  the  skins  of 
lambs  and  newly  born  calves. 

Tanned  deer  skin,  commonly  known  as  buckskin, 
though  most  largely  employed  in  making  stout  gloves,  is 
also  used  for  covering  or  padding  piano  hammers. 

The  small  pieces  clipped  and  trimmed  from  skins  by 
manufacturers  of  fur  garments,  which  are  otherwise 
useless,  are  sold  to  fur  cutters  to  be  used  in  making  fur 
felt  hats. 


ANIMALS  IN  BIBLE  LANDS 

Ass,  domestic  and  wild ;  badger,  largely  used  in  the 
first  tabernacle;  bear,  slain  by  David  and  other  courage- 
ous men;  camel,  cow,  colt,  dog,  unclean,  and  anyone 
making  a  row  was  forbidden  under  the  law  of  Moses  to 
"bring  the  price  of  a  dog  into  the  house  of  the  Lord"  in 
satisfaction  of  that  vow,  as  it  was  declared  to  be  "an 
abomination  unto  the  Lord" ;  coney,  of  which  Solomon 
wrote:  "Conies  are  a  feeble  folk,  yet  make  they  their 
houses  in  the  rocks" ;  deer,  Solomon  had  deer  in  captiv- 
ity ;  goat,  skins  used  as  clothing ;  greyhound,  hart,  hare, 
unclean;  lamb,  used  for  clothing;  ferret,  lion,  specially 
mentioned  as  slain  by  David  and  Beniah,  the  latter  "went 
down  into  a  pit  on  a  snow  day  and  slew  a  lion" ;  leopard, 
regarding  which  Jeremiah  propounded  the  often  quoted 
query:  "Gan  the  leopard  change  its  spots?"  mole,  roe- 
buck, and  sheep  the  most  frequently  mentioned  of  all 
animals,  the  references  being  exceptionally  beautiful, 
interesting  and  impressive;  ox,  mouse,  unclean;  mule, 
ram,  a  sacrificial  animal ;  weasel  and  foxes  most  common 
and  numerous  of  the  wild  animals  in  Palestine,  on  which 
account  some  places  were  known  by  their  name.  Sam- 
son caught  three  hundred  foxes  alive,  tied  their  tails 
together  "two  by  two,"  put  burning  brands  between  the 
tails,  and  then  let  the  foxes  go  into  the  grain  fields  of 
the  Philistines,  thereby  destroying  them. 

:f  ur  :f oob 

Confident  epicures  and  hungry  hunters  regard  the 
flesh  of  certain  fur-bearing  animals  as  superior  in  value 
and  importance  to  the  fur,  and  as  the  only  meat  worth 

504 


FUR   FOOD  505 

cooking — no  matter  how  it  is  cooked,  but  that  it  is  better 
cooked  in  certain  ways  than  in  others,  and  best  when 
cooked  in  one  particular  way.  The  flesh  of  all  fur-bear- 
ers is  not  held  in  equal  esteem,  and  even  different  parts 
of  the  same  carcass  differ  materially  in  flavor  and  favor, 
some  cuts  being  considered  incomparably  delicious,  and 
others  scarcely  palatable.  A  few  ancient  Roman  epi- 
cures ate  the  flesh  of  the  fox,  but  considered  it  savory 
only  in  early  autumn  when  the  food  of  the  animal  con- 
sisted chiefly  of  grapes. 

Dwellers  in  the  Arctic  regions  still  regard  the  flesh 
of  the  white  and  blue  foxes  as  fairly  digestible,  raw  or 
cooked,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  they  would  relish 
roast  beef. 

Roast  badger  is  considered  a  delicacy  in  parts  of 
Europe  and  northern  sections  of  North  America. 

Natives  of  Australia  feast  upon  the  solid  flesh  of 
the  wombat,  but  it  is  a  tough  morsel  which  can  be  mas- 
ticated only  by  a  set  of  natural  teeth.  Bushmen  also  eat 
the  comparatively  juicy  flesh  of  the  native  opossum,  and 
the  platypus. 

Esquimaux  of  all  ages  eat  hair  seal  meat  as  often 
as  they  can  get  it,  and  are  not  particular  about  the  way 
it  is  prepared;  the  fat  of  the  animal  is  also  highly  es- 
teemed, largely  because  it  keeps  aglow  the  internal  fire 
of  the  eater.  The  flippers  of  young  hair  seals,  annually 
obtained  in  large  quantity,  are  classed  as  delicacies  by 
Newfoundlanders,  by  whom  they  are  preserved  on  long 
strings  until  required. 

The  hamster,  which  is  found  in  large  numbers  in 
the  sandy  districts  of  Germany,  furnishes  the  people  with 
good  food ;  the  animal  is  killed  very  soon  after  the  cereal 


506  FUR   FOOD 

crops  are  gathered,  and  as  the  catch  is  large  the  meat  is 
very  cheap. 

Rabbits,  wild  and  domesticated,  are  extensively  used 
for  food  in  Australia,  Europe,  America  and  in  all  places 
where  the  animal  abounds;  many  thousands  are  annu- 
ally sold  in  New  York  markets  from  November  to  Janu- 
ary. Millions  of  rabbit  carcasses  are  canned  in  Aus- 
tralia and  New  Zealand  for  export;  large  supplies  are 
taken  for  the  army  in  the  field.  Hares,  which  are  larger 
than  rabbits,  are  eaten  in  vast  quantities  in  Russia  and 
Germany. 

From  eight  to  twenty  million  squirrels  are  killed 
annually  for  fur  and  food. 

Black  bear  steaks  are  served  in  hunting  camps, 
country  homes,  and  city  restaurants,  but  the  supply  is 
never  large;  properly  broiled  bear's  liver  is  a  delicacy. 

The  flesh  of  the  Polar  bear  is  relished  by  an  Eskimo 
— when  he  can  catch  the  bear  asleep;  a  few  Arctic  ex- 
plorers have  dined  on  juicy  roasts  cut  from  the  carcass 
of  this  huge  animal,  and  at  the  time  considered  the  meat 
rather  good. 

Baked  raccoon  and  opossum  are  favorite  dishes  in 
many  parts  of  the  United  States;  a  president  of  this 
great  country  upon  occasion  tested  roast  opossum,  and 
asked  for  more — but  not  too  often. 

In  a  few  places  the  economical  and  hungry  eat 
woodchuck,  when  other  flesh  foods  are  scarce  and  some- 
thing must  be  eaten. 

Aleuts  on  the  islands  of  St.  Paul  and  St.  George 
eat  the  flesh  of  the  fur  seal  as  Newfoundlanders  eat  fish, 
fresh,  smoked  and  salted ;  the  government  permits  them 
to  kill  about  twenty-five  hundred  fur  seals  each  year  for 


FUR  FOOD  507 

food — no  one  else  is  permitted  to  kill  a  fur  seal  for  any 
purpose  on  American  soil.  Aleuts  use  the  oil  of  the  fur 
seal  to  soften  dried  fish  which  constitutes  a  considerable 
portion  of  their  daily  provender. 

South  American  Indians  eat  the  red-hued  flesh  of 
the  coypu. 

The  flesh  of  the  moose  though  eaten  fresh  is  said 
to  be  greatly  improved  by  smoking ;  caribou  meat  is  dry 
and  tasteless,  but  a  small  layer  of  fat  immediately  under 
the  skin  on  the  back  of  the  male  is  delicious;  caribou 
marrow-bone  is  also  highly  esteemed;  the  flesh  of  all 
members  of  the  deer  family  is  very  generally  considered 
excellent;  but  the  venison  epicure  will  eat  it  only  after 
it  has  been  many  days  dead — and  worse. 

Hundreds  of  thousands  of  bison  were  killed  solely 
for  their  tongues. 

Beaver  flesh  is  eaten  in  the  north ;  beaver  tail,  which 
is  skinned  and  then  roasted  or  baked,  is  said  to  be  very 
fine — ^none  sold  in  market. 

In  by-gone  ages  certain  wise  monks  officially  de- 
clared that  the  beaver  is  a  fish,  and  could  therefore  be 
eaten  by  the  faithful  on  Fridays ;  this  decision  is  one  of 
the  causes  of  the  early  extinction  of  the  beaver  in 
Europe. 

Wolf  ribs  are  eaten  by  some  northern  hunters,  and 
a  few  half-starved  woodsmen. 

Parts  of  the  flesh  of  the  badger  make  good  bacon. 

African  sportsmen  eat  leopard  steaks  and  roasted 
jackal. 

Pemmican,  mentioned  in  every  frontier  yam,  is 
made  by  Indian  squaws,  and  consists  of  lean  pieces  of 
buffalo  and  deer  cut  in  strips  and  dried  in  the  sun ;  it  is 
eaten  in  the  form  in  which  it  is  dried  or  reduced  to  a 


508  FUR   FOOD 

powder.    One  important  ingredient,  dried  buffalo,  is  no 
longer  included  in  pemmican  preparations. 

Roasted  muskrat  is  esteemed  by  many,  not  only  in 
rural  districts  but  m  large  cities;  supplies  of  this  dark 
red  ifieat  are  regularly  sold  during  the  winter  at  Balti- 
more and  Philadelphia;  it  is  purchased  by  private  con- 
sumers, and  is  served  at  some  hotels  and  restaurants  as 
"swamp  rabbit."  If  considered  from  the  point  of  clean- 
liness, it  ought  to  be  good,  as  the  muskrat  invariably 
washes  all  its  food,  and  is  in  every  respect  an  exception- 
ally clean  animal. 

In  some  sections  the  highly  flavored  flesh  of  the 
skunk  is  eaten ;  it  may  be  assumed  that  hopeless  hunger 
long  deferred  is  an  essential  prelude  to  a  feast  upon 
roast  skunk  served  under  any  name. 

In  China  the  domestic  cat  is  baked,  broiled,  roasted 
and  stewed,  and  is  pronounced  delicate  and  distracting. 
If  the  gods  impose  madness  as  a  necessary  precedent  to 
destruction,  then  furies  and  satyrs  must  as  surely  en- 
chant the  gastronomical  senses  preliminary  to  a  feast 
upon  feline  fragments,  however  fancifully  fricasseed. 

The  little  silver-grey  moth,  tinea  pellion  Ha,  is  an 
important  factor  in  the  fur  trade,  and  a  terror  to  all 
possessors  of  costly  furs,  in  consequence  of  its  natural 
predilection  for  feasting  upon  prime  peltries.  Moths  of 
this  genus  have  insatiable  appetites,  and  if  allowed  to 
remain  undisturbed  in  a  garment  will  continue  to  feed 
until  not  a  shred  of  fur  remains;  even  when  every  pre- 
caution is  taken,  the  loss  caused  by  moths  is  very  great. 


MOTHS  609 

Fur  moths  first  cut  off  the  fur  close  to  the  skin  and 
then  eat  through  the  leather,  perforating  it  completely, 
continuing  the  process,  if  not  discovered,  until  the  entire 
pelt  is  ruined;  Every  probable  means  has  been  used  to 
destroy  the  destroyer,  but  without  attaining  the  desired 
result ;  the  substances  and  materials  used  in  the  fur  trade 
to  protect  furs  from  the  ravages  of  moths,  include  cam- 
phor, tobacco,  naptha,  cedar  chips,  insect  powder,  oil  of 
turpentine,  moth  crystals,  tar  paper,  and  carbolized 
paper;  but  none  of  these  anti-moth  remedies  has  been 
found  sufficiently  effective  to  obviate  the  necessity  for 
frequently  whipping  the  furs  with  round  rods  specially 
made  for  the  purpose. 

Cold  storage,  which  has  been  developed  and  per- 
fected in  recent  years,  provides  the  only  reliably  safe 
method  of  moth-protection  on  a  large  scale;  the  moth 
cannot  live,  or  its  eggs  hatch,  at  a  temperature  below 
freezing,  and  this  condition  is  constantly  maintained  in 
all  up-to-date  cold  storage  plants. 

Owners  of  single  garments,  who  prefer  to  care  for 
their  own  furs,  may  perfectly  protect  them  in  the  follow- 
ing manner:  Beat  and  air  the  article  thoroughly  early 
in  the  spring,  before  the  moths  have  had  an  opportunity 
to  lay  their  eggs  in  the  fur ;  then  place  the  garment  in  a 
box  having  a  close-fitting  lid,  wrap  the  box  in  three  or 
four  coverings  of  sound,  unbroken  paper,  and  paste 
down  all  the  lapping  edges,  being  particular  to  tightly 
close  every  crack  or  opening — this  is  a  thoroughly  pro- 
tective packing. 


GALLOWAY 

Owing  to  the  great  and  exhausting  demand  in 
recent  years  for  fur-skins  of  every  name,  quality  and 
color/ and  the  consequent  advance  in  values,  practically 
all  skins  in  any  degree  resembling  fur  have  within  the 
past  few  years  been  made  up  into  garments  to  meet  a 
price  demand  and  cater  to  the  comfort  of  men  and 
women  financially  unable  to  purchase  fine  peltries. 

The  list  includes  what  are  termed  "Galloway"  coats, 
gloves  and  mittens,  which  are  made  of  the  hides  of  cows, 
bulls,  calves,  and  horses  old  and  young.  Galloway  is 
the  name  of  a  small  breed  of  horses  originating  in  Scot- 
land, and  small  hornless  cattle  native  to  the  same  coun- 
try; the  articles  of  apparel  made  and  sold  as  Galloway 
are  manufactured  in  the  United  States,  chiefly  in  the 
middle  west  and  moderately  in  New  York  State,  and 
have  their  source  of  being,  not  in  imported  stock,  but 
quite  exclusively  in  the  hides  of  domestic  cattle  killed  for 
food — mainly  private  stock — and  incidentally  used  as 
clothing,  either  as  mementos,  or  because  of  limited  cost 
of  manufacture. 

These  cow  and  calfskin  garments  are  protective  and 
durable,  and  where  worn,  in  the  open  country,  are  im- 
pressively attractive. 

Galloway  garments  are  mainly  made  on  order  for 
individual  consumers,  owners  of  the  departed  bovines 
and  equines ;  this  fact  accounts  for  the  thrilling  phrase  in 
advertisements  soliciting  personal  orders,  inserted  in 
country  papers  by  makers  of  Galloway  apparel,  viz.: 
"Let  us  tan  your  own  hide,  and  make  it  up  into  a  coat  or 
robe." 

510 


SUMMER  WEASEL  511 

SUMMER   WEASEL 
We  have  noticed  in  the  announcement  of  a  western 
firm,  as  a  19 17  "first  timer,"  an  offering  of  ladies'  fur 
sets   in   "summer  weasel,"   the  brown   skins   hitherto 
counted  worthless  by  first-hand  buyers  of  raw  furs. 

WOODCHUCK 
The  skin  of  the  woodchuck,  another  discard,  is  likely 
to  get  an  advanced  position  in  price  lists  and  emporiums, 
though  the  supply  will  never  be  other  than  insignificant. 

TRENCH  RATS 
Trench  rats  have  been  accorded  a  niche  in  the  realm 
of  fur  utility,  but  their  reason  for  being  does  not  presage 
extreme  popularity.  Reference  to  the  trenches  serves  as 
a  reminder  that  several  governments  are  important 
buyers  of  furs  for  service  in  those  dismal  depths,  and 
active  destroyers  of  existing  fur  supplies,  and  thereby 
the  creators  of  new  values. 

PRAIRIE  DOGS 
Prairie  dogs,  or  American  marmots,  abound  in  the 
plains  in  the  southwest,  from  Montana  southward  to 
Mexico,  congregating  in  large  villages  of  their  own, 
shared  only  with  rattle  snakes.  The  prairie  dog  is  from 
eight  to  ten  inches  in  length,  has  a  rather  coarse  coat  of 
fur  varying  from  greyish  to  reddish  brown;  the  furred 
tail  is  tipped  with  black.  The  fur  has  been  used  for 
making  gloves  and  carriage  robes,  but  has  never  been 
important  owing  to  size  and  poor  quality  of  the  pelt.  It 
is  a  burrowing  animal,  undermines  large  sections  of 
country  and  is  destructive;  efforts  are  being  made  to 
exterminate  it  by  poisoning.  Wolves,  panthers  and  wild 
cats  are  also  poisoned  to  hasten  their  extinction. 


Solomon  5*  iHanne 

In  1888  a  manufacturing  business  in  popular  furs 
was  established  by  Solomon  J.  Manne  and  J.  Silberlust, 
under  the  firm  name  of  Manne  &  Silberlust,  with  a 
factory  on  Bleecker  Street,  New  York. 

The  firm  continued  actively  engaged  until  1891, 
when  the  partnership  was  dissolved,  Solomon  J.  Manne 
continuing  alone  at  11  Bond  Street.  In  1892,  becoming 
quite  ill,  Mr.  Manne  discontinued  business  and  spent 
some  months  recuperating  at  Colorado  Springs.  The 
latter  part  of  that  year  he  returned  to  New  York  and 
resumed  manufacturing,  but  his  health  again  failing  in 
1893,  he  gave  up  mercantile  pursuits  and  sought  recovery 
in  a  sojourn  at  Asheville,  North  Carolina.  At  this  time, 
and  in  consequence  of  his  inability  to  successfully  con- 
duct business  under  great  physical  disability,  he  sus- 
pended payment  of  his  obligations — plainly  merely  sus- 
pended payments,  for  the  record  shows  that  in  191 3  he 
paid  every  debt  in  full. 

Mr.  Manne  re-engaged  in  manufacturing  in  1894, 
admitting  into  partnership  his  brother,  Sigmund  Manne, 
under  style :  S.  J.  Manne  &  Brother.  The  firm  continued 
progressively  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  fine  furs 
until  18 1 2,  in  which  year  Sigmund  Manne  retired  with 
a  competency. 

Following  the  withdrawal  of  the  junior  member  of 
the  firm  in  1912,  the  business  was  incorporated  under 
title,  S.  J.  Manne  &  Brother,  Inc.,  the  incorporators  and 
officers  being:  Solomon  J.  Manne,  president  and  treas- 

512 


■Tp-' 


mmfi^:- 


?Fmnm^  "¥   -i^nnrtp 


York. 


Solomon  J.  iWanne 


NATURE   NOTES  515 

bly  greatly  developed,  as  are  the  other  senses,  in  the 
course  of  the  life  of  the  particular  animal  in  consequence 
of  its  experienced  utility;  but  it  is  not  developed  to  an 
equal  degree  in  animals  of  all  species,  or  in  all  of  the 
same  species.  The  dog,  which  is  most  highly  trained, 
has  a  keener  sense  of  scent  than  any  of  the  wild  animals, 
none  of  which  places  more  than  partial  dependence  upon 
the  sense  of  smell,  seemingly  considering  sight  and  hear- 
ing more  efficient. 

Many  trappers  believe  that  a  fox  which  has  never 
seen  a  man  or  at  the  most  not  more  than  once  and  then 
at  a  considerable  distance,  can  detect  the  odor  left  by  hu- 
man hands  upon  a  steel  trap  set  several  hours  before  the 
fox  visits  it,  and  that  the  sly  animal  cannot  be  caught  in 
a  trap  thus  tainted  with  human  scent.  In  order  to  notice 
an  odor,  human  or  inhuman,  so  lightly  and  remotely  im- 
pressed upon  steel  the  fox  with  the  most  acute  sense  of 
smell  would  have  to  sniff  the  metal  at  close  range ;  actu- 
ally touch  it  with  the  tip  of  its  nose,  and  in  so  doing 
would,  nine  times  out  of  ten,  spring  the  trap  and  get 
caught,  not  by  a  foot,  the  usual  way,  but  by  the  nose. 

Trappers  who  believe  this  human  scent  legend,  as- 
sert that  traps  should  be  set  only  with  gloved  hands ;  but 
no  one  has  arisen  to  state  at  what  period  or  in  what  man- 
ner the  fox  acquired  a  definite  knowledge  of  human 
scent,  or  learned  to  effectively  differentiate  it  from  the 
odor  of  an  old  and  variously  used  glove. 

The  sense  of  smell,  being  the  primary  active  sense, 
is  undoubtedly  of  extreme  importance  to  practically  all 
animals,  but  observation  impresses  the  conviction  that 
its  efficiency  is  considerably  exaggerated.  It  is  not  cred- 
itable to  human  intelligence  to  suppose  that  scent  from 


516  NATURE   NOTES 

the  foot  of  a  rabbit  or  fox  lightly  touching  the  ground 
for  not  more  than  a  second  of  time  should  remain  for 
hours  in  sufficient  strength  to  be  readily  perceptible  to 
another  and  unlike  animal.  While  we  are  certain  that 
this  remarkable  foot-odor  remains  for  some  time  and  is 
noticeable  to  animals,  the  dog  and  others  in  whom  the 
sense  of  smell  is  highly  developed,  we  are  equally  sure 
that  the  sense  of  smell  is  not  the  only  faculty  essentially 
exercised  by  the  pursuer  in  tracking  the  pursued — the 
eyes  of  the  former  are  importantly  depended  upon  in  the 
chase,  particularly  in  patient,  plodding  hunters  such  as 
the  hound — felines,  which  crouch  and  surprise,  chiefly 
rely  upon  the  sense  of  sight ;  speedy  hunters  depend  upon 
ears  and  feet;  preying  animals  of  every  species,  and 
those  preyed  upon,  use  to  the  utmost  every  sense,  sinew 
and  muscle. 

During  the  fear-inspired  run  for  life  the  feet  of  the 
fleeing  fox  or  hare  make  distinct  impressions,  marks  and 
scratches  in  the  soft  ground,  damp  leaves,  moss  and 
grass  over  which  they  pass,  which  impressions  and 
marks  are  fairly  visible  to  the  keen  sight  of  the  trailer, 
and  the  senses  of  smell  and  sight  operating  concurrently 
enable  the  pursuing  hunter  to  trace  the  course  of  its 
quarry  almost  unerringly.  The  observing  sportsman  has 
noticed  that  at  times  even  his  most  dependable  dogs  have 
lost  the  scent  in  rocky  places,  or  rather  large  areas  cov- 
ered with  very  dry  leaves ;  the  odor  of  the  feet  of  the  rab- 
bit or  fox  was  not  lessened  or  otherwise  affected  during 
the  rapid  passage  of  the  animals  over  these  places;  the 
scent  may  have  been  more  quickly  dissipated,  but  was 
lost,  as  the  dog  "following  the  track"  best  knows,  be- 
cause the  bounding  feet  of  the  escaping  animals  left  no 


NATURE  NOTES  517 

characteristic  mark  upon  the  surface  of  the  rocks  or  ex- 
tremely hard  ground,  and  made  no  particular  change, 
scratch  or  form,  in  the  "lay"  of  the  very  dry  leaves, 
which  might  not  have  been  effected  by  a  passing  zephyr. 

A  fox  when  closely  pursued  by  a  hound  will,  if  the 
opportunity  offers,  cross  a  stream  at  a  place  where  the 
opposite  shore  is  more  or  less  "stony";  we  assume  that 
it  does  this  to  break  the  line  of  scent,  but  reynard  doubt- 
less merely  seeks  a  path  upon  which  no  tell-tale  marks 
can  be  imprinted.  Does  a  fox  know  so  much  ?  If  it  ap- 
prehends one-half,  and  it  seemingly  does,  it  surely  knows 
the  other  half ! 

A  wily  fox  in  making  a  long  leap  from  soft  ground 
to  a  hard  surface,  or  a  fallen  tree  trunk,  has  often  been 
able  to  secure  a  hiding  place  within  reach  of  the  pursu- 
ing dogs;  more  than  one  rabbit  by  remaining  quiet  in 
its  "form"  in  the  meadow  has  escaped  the  notice  of  a 
hound  passing  within  a  yard  of  its  retreat — surely  the 
scent  of  the  whole  animal  is  greater  than  that  of  the 
lightest  touch  of  its  feet  alone.  Footprints  remain  fairly 
visible  to  eyes  capable  of  seeing  them  long  after  the  scent 
has  disappeared — the  same  is  true  of  finger  prints.  If 
success  in  the  chase  depended  wholly  upon  scent,  com- 
paratively few  animals  would  be  caught;  the  fact  that 
speeding  feet  patter  at  least  part  of  the  time  where  no 
impression  can  be  made  largely  accounts  for  the  perpet- 
uation of  many  species  of  furry  animals. 

A  giant  may  have,  as  asserted,  smelled  the  "blood 
of  an  Englishman,"  and  thus  have  discerned  his  pres- 
ence; but  according  to  the  truer-to-nature  record  foot- 
prints in  the  sand  led  Crusoe  to  discover  Friday — and 
the  odor  of  a  fleeing  fox  is  said  to  be  exceedingly  delicate 


518  NATURE   NOTES 

compared  with  that  of  a  Friday  in  his  native  atmos- 
phere. The  tips  of  the  noses  of  fur  and  hair-bearing 
animals  are  bare,  entirely  devoid  of  fur  or  hair,  a  provi- 
sion of  nature  whereby  their  sense  of  smell  is  increased 
in  efficiency;  if  furred  to  the  tip  the  fur  would  retain 
the  odors  of  the  many  substances  into  which  the  nose  is 
frequently  plunged,  making  it  impossible  for  the  animal 
to  distinguish  any  particular  scent,  or  escape  the  misery 
of  smelling  many  smells  continuously. 

EARS 

The  external  ears  of  quadrupeds  show  marked  dif- 
ferences in  set  or  position ;  in  some  species  the  ears  point 
backward,  in  others  forward,  and  in  a  number  extend 
directly  outward  at  approximately  right  angles  with  the 
sides  of  the  head;  these  are  the  lines  in  which  the  out- 
ward ears  are  naturally  set,  but  each  of  these  positions 
may  be  assumed  by  all  fur-bearers  at  will,  as  their  ears 
are  mobile  within  the  range  of  half  a  circle.     These 
characteristics  are  essential  to  the  perpetuation  of  the 
several  species  of  animals,  for  while  all  prey  and  are 
preyed  upon  none  has  been  sent  into  the  world  without 
being  given  a  fair  chance  to  escape  sudden  and  complete 
destruction.    The  species  which  secure  their  prey  more 
definitely  in  the  chase  than  by  the  exercise  of  cunning, 
have  their  ears  naturally  pointed  forward  so  that  t!iey 
may  the  more  readily  catch  the  sound  of  the  pattering 
feet  of  the  creature  they  are  pursuing,  which  not  only 
runs  in  the  open  but  frequently  turns  to  the  right  or  the 
left  and  dodges  behind  bushes,  stumps  or  other  objects 
offering  concealment.     The  animals  pursued,  particu- 
larly those  which  are  hunted  as  food  by  other  animals 


NATURE   NOTES  519 

but  which  do  not  hunt  for  a  livelihood,  have  their  out- 
ward ears  pointed  backward,  an  evident  provision  of  na- 
ture designed  to  enable  them  to  readily  hear  every  sound 
made  by  the  eager  feet  of  their  invisible  pursuers,  from 
whom  they  are  strenuously  seeking  to  escape. 

We  may  note  that  the  rabbit  in  its  wild  dash  for  life 
has  its  ears  pointed  backward,  while  the  ears  of  the  pur- 
suing lynx  are  turned  straight  forward ;  it  is  not  to  be 
understood,  however,  that  the  ears  of  the  rabbit,  or  the 
lynx,  or  any  other  wild  creature  are  immovably  fixed  in 
the  positions  noted,  for  the  various  voracious  creatures 
frequently  approach  their  prey  from  in  front  evidently 
by  chance  rather  than  from  choice;  all  animals  which 
have  their  ears  distinctly  turned  backward  have  the 
ability  to  turn  their  ears  forward,  and  thus  detect  sounds 
of  an  approaching  foe,  and  they  do  so  frequently  though 
mainly  depending  for  protection  against  frontal  attacks 
upon  their  wonderfully  keen  eyesight. 

It  need  not  be  doubted  that  the  power  to  note  the  ap- 
proach of  an  enemy  by  the  sense  of  hearing  only  essen- 
tially aids  the  pursued  in  effecting  its  escape ;  and  equally 
that  the  forward  trend  of  the  ears  of  the  pursuer,  where- 
by it  is  enabled  to  detect  sounds  made  by  the  fleeing 
quarry  augments  its  prospects  of  success  in  the  chase; 
this  remarkable  power  of  hearing  should  be  regarded  as 
a  developed  rather  than  an  innate  faculty,  the  mobility 
of  the  ears  being  nature's  contribution.  The  rabbit  that 
will  not  use  its  backward-pointed  ears  as  well  as  its  for- 
ward-glancing eyes,  may  never  deliberately  or  carelessly 
run  into  danger,  nor  will  it  long  escape  the  greater  peril 
lurking  in  its  rear. 


520  NATURE    NOTES 

Incidentally  it  may  be  observed  that  the  human 
mind,  which  "grows  by  what  it  feeds  upon,"  surely 
dwarfs  by  feeding  upon  husks  when  propitious  pabulum 
is  available. 

Domestic  animals  which  have  long  enjoyed  immun- 
ity from  the  fury  of  ancient  enemies,  have  their  visible 
ears  set  forward,  backward,  or  nearly  at  a  right  angle 
from  the  head;  but  in  all  the  faculty  of  mobility  is 
retained. 

EYES 

The  eyes  of  animals  chiefly  active  in  the  clear  light 
of  the  day  are  generally  dark,  as  noted  in  the  horse,  seal, 
deer  and  others,  including  many  birds;  the  exceptions 
seem  to  be  those  which  in  seeking  their  food  or  prey  de- 
pend largely  upon  the  sense  of  smell  or  wholly  upon  the 
sense  of  sight,  including  some  of  the  felines,  the  eagle, 
hawks  and  other  carniverous  birds,  all  of  which  have 
rather  bright  eyes,  some  being  brightened  with  yellow, 
white  or  red  rings. 

Nocturnal  animals  usually  have  bright  eyes,  in  some 
specimens  the  eyes  being  intensely  bright,  flashing  yel- 
low or  red  when  observed  in  the  dark ;  this  brightness  is 
markedly  noticeable  in  members  of  the  cat  family,  the 
owls,  herons,  and  others. 

Animals  which  cannot  be  strictly  classed  as  either 
diurnal  or  nocturnal,  the  burrowers,  hibernating  and 
amphibious  animals,  generally  have  dark  eyes.  In  the 
lives  of  all  fur-bearers  the  first  active  sense  is  smell ;  and 
in  birds  in  the  nest,  is  hearing;  but  when  the  furry  and 
feathered  folk  set  out  to  hunt  that  they  may  live,  the 
sense  of  sight  becomes  of  vital  importance,  is  developed 


NATURE   NOTES  521 

to  a  degree  surpassing  human  comprehension.  The 
eagle,  hawk  and  vulture  soaring  at  vast  heights  in  cloud- 
land  note  the  location  of  their  prey  and  provender  in 
lake,  or  ocean,  or  on  land,  and  unerringly  descend  to  it. 
In  radiant  day  and  rayless  night  sight  is  the  su- 
preme protective  sense  enjoyed  by  natural  fur-bearers 
and  feather-wearers,  but  instead  of  being  solely  depend- 
ed upon,  is  made  to  work  together  in  harmony  of  action 
with  all  the  senses  and  faculties  in  sustaining  life. 

MOTION 

The  sense  of  sight  possessed  by  animals,  however 
great,  is  not  infallible,  and  would  be  of  little  avail  except 
for  one  condition — motion. 

A  hawk  soaring  over  a  field  will  not  note  the  differ- 
ence between  a  stump  and  a  sleeping  bear,  in  fact  may 
not  specially  observe  either,  but  a  moving  mouse  will 
catch  its  attention  and  cause  it  to  descend  in  an  instant. 

A  muskrat  swimming  on  a  pond  in  a  usually  unfre- 
quented marsh  will  not  distinguish  a  man  from  a  post  or 
dead  tree  so  long  as  the  man  remains  perfectly  motion- 
less, but  the  instant  he  moves,  though  only  a  hand,  the 
muskrat  will  disappear  beneath  the  water. 

A  heron  flying  across  a  bay  will  cause  the  small  fish 
to  run  into  deeper  water,  but  the  same  heron  may  stand 
motionless  in  the  water  for  a  few  moments  and  the  fish 
will  return  toward  shore  and  swim  all  round  the  big 
bird  which  by  a  swift  stroke  can  catch  one  fish  after 
another. 

Even  the  cunning  fox  will  approach  within  strik- 
ing distance  of  a  man  who  stands  perfectly  still,  but  will 
flee  from  another  however  leisurely  moving  five  hundred 


522  MOTION 

yards  distant.  A  flock  of  quail  will  lie  quietly  in  a 
clump  of  small  trees  very  near  which  a  hunter  is  passing 
so  long  as  he  continues  to  move  on,  but  the  instant  he 
stops  they  rise  at  terrific  speed;  they  evidently  gauge 
the  possibilities  of  danger  due  to  the  moving  object, 
but  when  it  ceases  to  move  are  unable  to  longer  control 
their  fear. 

The  opossum  seems  to  have  quite  perfectly  sensed 
the  condition ;  owing  to  the  fact  that  its  range  of  vision 
is  quite  limited  the  opossum  is  often  surprised  by  its 
enemies,  and  in  such  instances,  escape  by  running  being 
impossible,  the  animal  feigns  death,  manifestly  under- 
standing that  if  it  remains  absolutely  motionless  it  will 
be  passed  by  unobserved.  It  has  long  been  generally 
supposed  that  the  opossum  played  dead  because  it  knew 
or  believed  that  the  creature  menacing  it,  no  matter  how 
hungry,  would  not  eat  a  dead  animal,  or  one  not  self- 
caught — an  untenable  view,  unless  we  are  willing  to 
freely  affirm  that  the  opossum  thinks,  reasons  and  mar- 
vellously imagines,  as  no  carnivorous  brute,  though  only 
moderately  hungry,  could  be  so  easily  deceived;  where- 
as the  most  cunning  beast  unless  it  had  seen  the  opossum 
before  it  lay  down  as  dead  would  fail  to  notice  it  while 
it  remained  quiescent.  Every  hunter  knows  how  diffi- 
cult it  is  at  times  to  find  a  dead  bird,  though  he  very  care- 
fully noted  the  spot  where  it  fell ;  and  on  the  other  hand 
how  readily  a  wounded  bird  is  found  because  of  a  slight 
movement  of  its  head  or  wing. 

An  Esquimaux  will  spend  hours  in  a  patient  en- 
deavor to  approach  a  seal  dozing  upon  the  ice  near  an 
opening  at  the  edge  of  the  water  into  which  it  is  sure  to 
disappear  if  alarmed ;  the  seal  frequently  raises  its  head 


NATURE    NOTES  523 

and  carefully  scans  the  surrounding  ice  field,  and  at  such 
moments  the  Esquimau,  who  has  not  for  an  instant 
ceased  to  watch  the  seal,  becomes  perfectly  motionless ; 
the  seal  may  note  the  hunter  as  a  dark  object  upon  the 
ice,  but  detecting  no  motion  will  resume  its  spookless 
dreams,  and  in  due  course  be  caught.  The  ptarmigan 
and  Arctic  fox  in  their  winter  dress  white  as  the  pure 
snow  everywhere  present  in  their  habitat,  are  revealed 
to  each  other  by  their  necessary  movements  in  quest  of 
food,  otherwise  both  would  have  been  extinct  long  since 
— owing  to  cunning  and  caution  both  survive,  but  neith- 
er flourishes. 

FEET 

Four  flitting  feet  seemingly  indifferent  to  fatigue, 
ever  responsive  to  the  lure  of  hope  or  the  spur  of  fear, 
faithfully  though  not  always  successfully,  serve  fur- 
bearers  in  pursuing  and  when  being  pursued,  as  hunters 
and  hunted. 

Carnivorous  animals  are  the  pursuers;  those  that 
feed  upon  grasses,  fruits  and  cereals  are  the  pursued; 
when  one  of  the  latter  is  discovered  and  attacked  it 
dashes  swiftly  away,  running  for  some  time  straight 
ahead,  but  when  too  closely  followed  frequently  di- 
gresses to  the  right  and  left,  darts  around  trees  and  boul- 
ders, and  speeds  hither  and  thither  in  quest  of  a  secure 
hiding  place ;  the  pursuer,  which  in  turn  is  certain  to  be 
pursued  by  other  carnivora,  trained  dog,  or  human  foe, 
undoubtedly  learns  much  from  its  experience  as  a  hunter 
that  is  of  value  to  it  when  hunted,  and  not  only  learns 
the  tricks  but  practices  them  when  necessary. 

The  little  brown  hare  can  outrun  the  great,  strong 


524  NATURE    NOTES 

lynx,  but  cannot  tire  it  out;  it  is  far  more  speedy  than 
the  smaller  weasel,  but  is  incomparably  less  persistent; 
the  rabbit  frequently  evades  the  lynx  by  dashing  into  a 
burrow,  stone  fence  or  thicket  where  the  lynx  cannot 
follow,  but  it  seldom  escapes  the  patient  plodding  weasel 
in  any  of  these  ways,  as  the  smaller  weasel  can  easily 
penetrate  any  opening  into  which  the  rabbit  may  enter. 
The  rabbit  would  invariably  elude  lynx,  weasel  and  other 
ravenous  pursuers  if  it  maintained  a  straight-forward 
course,  but  as  this  fact  is  not  included  in  rabbit  sense,  the 
career  of  the  animal  is  marked  by  joyful  successes,  and 
marred  by  final  failure — and  an  essential  balance  in 
animal  life  is  maintained. 

Some  fur-bearers  instead  of  seeking  safety  in 
speedy  flight  on  the  ground,  depend  upon  their  agility  in 
climbing,  their  feet,  provided  with  sharp  claws,  being 
perfectly  adapted  to  this  mode  of  travel;  the  squirrel, 
marten,  raccoon,  sable  and  opossum  live  in  trees  much  of 
the  time,  and  when  pursued  run  to  their  homes  in  great 
trees,  where  foxes,  wolves,  dogs  and  other  four-footed 
foes  are  unable  to  follow  them,  but  where  they  are  not 
wholly  safe,  as  other  enemies,  noticeably  the  weasel,  cat 
and  puma  are  expert  climbers. 

Fur-bearers  catch  their  prey  with  their  teeth,  or 
first  disable  their  victims  with  blows  of  their  heavy  claw- 
armed  paws ;  the  eagle  and  hawks  catch  their  prey  with 
their  feet. 

The  race  is  not  always  to  the  swift,  nor  is  the  sur- 
vival of  the  most  fit  to  live  the  invariable  rule;  the  ut- 
most that  we  can  consider  assured  in  creative  intent  is 
perpetuation  within  certain  bounds. 


NATURE  NOTES  525 

FURRY  COATS  AND  TEMPERATURE 

Fur  constitutes  a  thoroughly  protective  "all  the 
year"  covering  for  its  original  owner,  the  fur-bearing 
animal  hunted  from  valley  to  hilltop,  and  its  casual  rest- 
ing place  in  a  shallow  den  to  a  safe  retreat  in  some  rocky 
cavern.  Fur  is  quite  generally  considered  protective 
against  cold  because  of  the  assumption  that  it  supplies 
warmth,  which  is  incorrect;  the  protection  consciously 
enjoyed  is  due  to  the  fact  that  fur  is  an  inferior  con- 
ductor of  heat,  and  therefore  prevents  the  free  radiation 
of  the  vital  heat  of  the  body  so  essential  to  the  comfort 
and  health  of  animals  exposed  to  the  severity  of  very 
low  temperatures  during  a  considerable  part  of  the  year. 
The  fact  that  fur,  in  somewhat  lesser  amount,  in  exclud- 
ing the  heat  is  also  effectively  protective  against  the 
much  higher  temperature  of  the  remaining  months,  is 
apparently  not  understood  or  realized.  It  may  be  ob- 
served that  even  the  larger  creatures,  noticeably  the 
bear,  which  pass  the  winter  in  calm  repose,  apparently 
suffer  no  great  inconvenience  if  any,  on  account  of  the 
cold,  it  is  noted  that  other  furry  creatures  are  as  alert 
throughout  the  season  of  frosts  and  ice  as  at  any  time 
of  the  year ;  it  is  plain  therefore  that  the  bear  and  other 
animals  do  not  slumber  and  sleep  through  the  winter 
because  of  an  instinctive  fear  of  the  cold,  which  they 
surely  measurably  experience  whether  waking  or  sleep- 
ing, but  solely  on  account  of  the  impossibility  of  procur- 
ing even  a  minimum  supply  of  food  suited  to  their  needs. 

It  may  also  be  confidently  asserted  that  fur-bearers 
are  not  really  unpleasantly  affected  by  the  average  or 
exceptional  warmth  of  summer,  owing  to  the  fact  that 


526  NATURE    NOTES 

fur  is  a  poor  conductor  of  heat;  and  secondarily  on  ac- 
count of  their  invariable  habit  of  moulting  and  passing 
the  sunny  hours  in  caves  and  subterranean  dens. 

The  Russian  sable,  Polar  bear  and  Arctic  fox  may 
exceptionally  be  classed  as  completely  fur-clad  in  every 
feature  except  the  mere  tip  of  the  nose ;  these  creatures 
pass  many  consecutive  months  in  regions  of  ever  pres- 
ent snow  and  ice,  and  a  temperature  almost  continuously 
below  zero,  and  in  order  that  they  may  not  perish  as  they 
tramp  their  rounds  in  search  of  food,  all  parts  of  their 
bodies,  and  noticeably  the  soles  of  their  feet,  are  covered 
with  fur ;  the  fur  on  the  soles  of  the  feet,  forever  tread- 
ing snow  and  ice,  prevents  the  rapid  radiation  of  inter- 
nal heat,  and  excludes  the  external  cold. 

The  opposite  condition,  a  part  of  the  body  devoid  of 
fur  or  hair,  may  be  observed  in  certain  species,  many  of 
which  inhabit  cold  sections,  but  where  ice  is  confined  to 
lakes  and  streams ;  in  all  such  instances  nature  has  pro- 
vided an  effective  covering  for  the  parts  thus  seemingly 
exposed ;  these  f  urless  portions  of  anatomy  may  be  noted 
in  the  scaly  tails  of  the  beaver,  muskrat  and  opossum, 
the  flippers  of  seals,  horns  and  hoofs  of  deer,  sheep  and 
cattle,  and  the  noses  of  furry  and  hairy  animals 
generally. 

MEN  AND  FUR-BEARERS  AKIN 

The  goat  and  cat  are  ubiquitous  in  China,  greatly 
exceeding  in  number  all  other  species  combined ;  both  are 
home-keeping  and  contented  animals  in  an  exceptional 
degree — or  remarkably  like  their  masters. 

Spain  takes  its  name  from  the  care-free,  light-foot- 
ed rabbit,  the  animal  outnumbering  all  others  in  the 


NATURE   NOTES  527 

kingdom;  whether  the  characteristics  noted  primarily 
pertain  to  the  rabbits  or  the  people  is  immaterial — it  is 
noticeable  that  they  pertain. 

The  smallest  known  representatives  of  certain  spe- 
cies of  animals  are  found  in  Africa,  and  others  in  that 
continent  touch  the  opposite  extreme  in  size — a  fox  only 
eight  inches  in  length,  a  pocket-size  monkey,  the  mighty 
elephant,  and  the  huge  gorilla,  are  examples. 

Africa  is  the  one  country  in  which  both  human 
and  furry  giants  and  pigmies  abound. 

Great  Britain  is  the  home  of  the  majestic  stag,  and 
— ^believe  him — super  man. 

Deer  of  very  small  size  abound  in  Japan,  and  some 
of  them  are  considered  sacred.  Japanese  are  noted  as 
being  comparatively  diminutive,  and  one  of  their  num- 
ber is  regarded  as  a  deity. 

Nearly  all  animals  rank  as  sacred  in  India,  and  none 
may  be  killed  because  of  the  belief  in  the  transmigration 
of  souls;  no  Indian  is  quite  sure  which  witless  ape,  or 
dog,  or  other  brute  is  already  animated  by  a  former 
human  spirit,  or  waiting  to  receive  his  own;  it  is  not 
therefore  strange  that  claimed  kinship  should  find  ex- 
pression in  similar  characteristics. 

Australia  is  the  land  of  the  topsy-turvy;  plants, 
shrubs  and  trees  differ  widely  from  those  found  any- 
where else ;  the  fur-bearers  ;are  peculiar,  one  species  com- 
bines the  physical  features  of  bird  and  mammal,  mem- 
bers of  the  same  family  vary  from  a  few  inches  to  more 
than  six  feet  in  height ;  the  dog  is  wild ;  and  in  some  ani- 
mals primary  colors  prevail  in  fur  and  feather.  Natives 
of  Australia  differ  not  only  from  races  on  the  continents, 
but  from  those  inhabiting  adjacent  islands;  they  are 


528  NATURE    NOTES 

black,  but  their  hair,  which  is  short  and  curly,  is  not 
harsh  like  that  of  the  negro ;  some  of  them  continuously 
wander  from  place  to  place,  wear  no  clothing,  eat  raw 
flesh,  and  in  every  particular  are  more  nearly  akin  to 
brutes  than  human  beings. 

Fur-bearers  in  America  are  notoriously  nocturnal. 
Fur-bearers  in  America  are,  as  observed — the  fox, 
cunning;  the  skunk,  obnoxious;  the  cat,  indolent;  the 
beaver,  industrious,  and  others  otherwise  characteristic- 
ally human. 

Fur-bearers  are  all  nocturnal ;  and  man,  who  spends 
the  day  in  den-like  offices  and  sub-cellars  in  a  feverish 
hustle  to  garner  the  world's  tokens  of  exchange,  roams 
hither  and  thither  through  the  night  in  successful  ef- 
forts to  disperse  his  strenuously  acquired  coin,  all  too 
often  casting  his  pearls  before  swine,  wholly  unconscious 
that  the  revel  of  the  night  is  the  inevitable  reaction  of 
nature  against  the  destructive  struggle  of  the  day,  and 
that  sooner  or  later  the  "silver  cord  will  break." 

The  Esquimaux  strikingly  displays  the  leading 
traits  of  the  furry  animals  with  which  he  is  in  almost 
constant  association — noticeably,  cunning  of  the  fox,  do- 
cility of  the  seal,  courage  of  the  bear,  contentment  of  the 
reindeer,  and  endurance  peculiar  to  all. 

Natives  of  Alaska  carve  crude  representations  of 
the  fox,  bear,  wolf,  whale  and  other  animals  with  which 
they  are  familiar  upon  their  totem  poles,  and  name  them- 
selves or  their  tribes  after  the  creatures  thus  exalted. 

Kings  and  nobles,  and  those  who  "follow  in  their 
train,"  proudly  display  their  coat  of  arms,  as  visible 
signs  of  worth  emblazoned  not  with  glorious  deeds  but 
with  the  common  furry  animal  most  expressive  of  the       ■ 


NATURE   NOTES  529 

ancestral  and  inherited  character  of  the  haughty 
possessor. 

We  go  further  in  contentedly  consenting  to  be 
known  by  the  names  of  fur-bearers,  whether  painfully 
characteristic  or  conspicuously  inappropriate ;  bear  them 
through  life,  transmit  them  to  our  offspring,  and  write 
them  upon  monuments  of  stone  sacred  to  the  memory  of : 

Peter  Fox  or  Lucinda  Bear ; 

Willie  Wolf  or  Harriet  Hare; 

Richard  Lion,  "Humanity's  Defender"; 

Benny  Rabbit,  "Kind  and  Tender"; 

Clara  Beaver  and  Thomas  Catt,  "Forever  Blest"; 

Milton  Coon,  Sammy  Mink,  and  all  the  rest. 

BUILDERS 

Wherever  it  has  abounded  the  beaver  is  celebrated 
in  legend  and  story  on  account  of  its  ingenuity  and  indus- 
try as  a  builder;  the  animal  is  amphibious,  and  lives  in 
colonies  of  ten,  fifty,  and  upwards  of  one  hundred  mem- 
bers, all  of  them  except  a  very  few  drones,  being  patient 
and  persistent  workers — not  builders  merely,  but  archi- 
tects, engineers,  masons,  carpenters,  lumbermen  and 
hodcarriers. 

The  dam  constructed  across  streams  by  the  beaver, 
designed  to  maintain  a  body  of  water  essential  to  the 
life  and  comfort  of  the  animal,  is  composed  of  the  trunks 
and  branches  of  small  trees  cut  down,  trimmed  and  oth- 
erwise prepared  by  the  chisel-like  teeth  of  the  animals, 
and  then  floated  to  position  and  sunk  to  the  bottom  of  the 
stream  where  they  are  skillfully  interwoven,  and  with 
the  addition  of  stones  and  clay  are  wrought  into  a  strong 
and  permanent  dam. 


530  NATURE    NOTES 

In  building  its  dam  and  lodge  the  beaver  uses  its 
strong  sharp  teeth  as  an  axe,  its  teeth  and  forefeet  in 
transporting  stones,  timber  and  clay  to  the  sections  of 
the  structure  in  which  they  are  to  be  used,  and  its  tail 
as  a  trowel  in  packing  the  clay  firmly  in  place. 

Late  in  the  autumn  small  trees  are  felled,  cut  into 
portable  lengths,  taken  out  near  the  dam  and  sunk  to 
the  bottom  of  the  stream  to  furnish  a  fresh  supply  of 
bark  as  the  winter  food  of  the  colony. 

In  constructing  its  lodge  the  beaver  displays  the  in- 
genuity of  a  master  builder;  the  dwelling  comprises  a 
number  of  apartments  perfectly  adapted  to  the  needs 
and  comfort  of  the  occupants,  ingeniously  ventilated  so 
as  to  exclude  the  cold,  and  having  the  floors  set  well 
above  high  water  mark;  a  passage  way  leading  down- 
ward to  an  exit  considerably  below  the  surface  of  the 
water  enables  the  animals  to  pass  in  and  out  of  the  lodge 
unobserved. 

The  clay  covered  roof  of  the  lodge  is  hammered 
smooth  and  hard  by  the  tail  of  the  beaver,  and  when 
frozen  is  firm  as  a  cement  wall.  All  the  work  of  the 
beaver  is  due  to  instinct,  and  as  viewed  by  the  animal  is 
evidently  perfect,  as  experience  dictates  no  changes  or 
improvements  in  earliest  known  models. 

The  muskrat,  which  is  also  amphibious  and  gre- 
garious, builds  a  house  similar  to  that  of  the  beaver, 
though  not  so  substantial  or  ingenious;  it  is  made  of 
rushes,  sticks  and  mud,  rises  from  three  to  five  feet 
above  the  water,  has  several  rooms  and  secret  entrance 
at  the  lowest  under- water  level ;  the  height  of  the  build- 
ing is  gauged  with  reference  to  a  probable  rise  in  the 
surrounding  water  due  to  winter  rains  and  spring  floods 


NATURE   NOTES  531 

— the  muskrat  knows ;  the  house  serves  as  a  winter  resi- 
dence only ;  no  additional  cold  storage  plant  is  required, 
as  the  muskrat  feeds  from  autumn  to  spring  upon  the 
roots  of  living  but  dormant  aquatic  plants  bordering 
runs  and  ditches  throughout  the  marshes  in  which  it 
makes  its  home. 

Martens  and  squirrels  build  winter  houses  in  trees, 
using  sticks  and  leaves  for  the  purpose;  the  roofs  are 
constructed  to  perfectly  shed  the  rain,  but  the  structures 
are  otherwise  simple  and  uninteresting. 

While  fur-bearers  build  houses  for  their  protection 
and  comfort  in  winter  only ;  birds,  which  are  expert  and 
painstaking  builders,  construct  homes  to  serve  their 
needs  merely  for  a  few  weeks  in  the  spring. 

COLOR 

Fur-bearing  animals  of  the  field,  and  birds  of  the 
air,  show  wonderful  variations  in  color,  including  all 
primary  colors,  countless  combinations  and  shades, 
metalic,  bright  and  dull  hues;  failing  to  master  the 
mystery  openly  expressed  but  not  definitely  explained, 
we  content  ourselves  with  the  simple  assumption,  meas- 
urably true,  that  this  remarkable  coloring  is  chiefly,  if 
not  solely,  purposeful  as  a  protective  covering  in  the 
varied  and  changing  environment  of  the  creatures  thus 
endowed. 

It  is  more  manifestly  a  visible  evidence  of  the  lavish 
grace  of  the  Creator,  seen  in  all  His  works,  designed  to 
meet  and  satisfy  the  love  of  the  beautiful  universally 
entertained  by  His  creatures,  and  which  all  men,  con- 
sciously or  unawares,  constantly  strive  to  realize,  alter- 
nately build,  pull  down  and  reconstruct  in  tireless  efforts 


532  NATURE    NOTES 

to  achieve,  conscious  the  while  that  attainments  at  the 
best  and  utmost  only  approximate  aspirations. 

Certain  monkeys  show  markings  in  very  decided 
red  and  green ;  the  kolinsky  is  bright  yellow ;  some  mar- 
tens are  a  deep  orange  in  color;  foxes  are  red,  white, 
black,  blue,  grey,  yellow  and  variegated;  bears  and 
wolves  are  black,  brown,  white,  and  all  of  these  tones  in 
combination;  cats  and  squirrels  are  of  all  colors;  com- 
binations in  color  abound,  embracing  black  and  white, 
brown  and  white,  red  and  yellow,  and  in  instances  three 
or  more  colors  in  the  same  furry  coat,  set  in  dots,  lines, 
patches,  and  quite  clearly  defined  figures. 

That  the  peculiar  and  varied  coloring  noted  in  the 
fur  and  feathers  of  many  animals  harmonizes  with  their 
environment  and  is  therefore  protective,  need  not  be 
doubted;  but  to  assume  that  protection  against  enemies 
constitutes  the  sole  purpose  and  design  must  be  accepted 
as  a  first  thought,  a  plausible  theory  abounding  in  un- 
wisdom. 

Some  birds,  noticeably  the  partridge  and  quail,  are 
a  hodge-podge  of  black  and  brown  and  white,  and  con- 
sequently are  not  readily  observable  in  their  nests  of 
dead  leaves  and  grasses  indifferently  constructed  upon 
the  ground  under  bushes  or  bogs ;  but  the  green  branches 
or  drooping  grass  above  them  serve  as  their  best  pro- 
tection against  flying  hawks,  and  the  slightest  movement 
on  their  part  would  reveal  them  to  a  prowling  fox  or 
weasel;  partridge  and  quail,  hearing  the  patter  of  ap- 
proaching feet,  undoubtedly  see  the  fox  first  and 
instinctively  remain  perfectly  motionless,  depending 
equally  for  safety  upon  color  and  inaction.  If  either 
bird  should  move  its  head,  or  wing,  or  in  fear  partially 


NATURE   NOTES  633 

rise  to  its  feet  preparatory  to  flight,  it  would  be  instantly 
discovered  by  the  alert  ears  and  eyes  of  the  hungry  fox ; 
the  birds  would  surely  escape,  but  their  eggs  would  be 
devoured  by  their  enemy,  and  the  partridge  and  quail 
would  have  to  seek  new  nesting  places. 

The  eggs  of  the  partridge  are  dark  and  profusely 
blotched  with  black  and  brown,  and  are,  therefore,  well 
concealed  by  the  general  color  of  the  nest  while  the  hen 
is  absent  in  quest  of  food;  it  should  also  be  noted  that 
eggs  do  not  move  of  themselves.  The  eggs  of  the  quail 
are  plain  white,  but  the  nest  is  nearly  always  placed  in 
open  fields,  often  very  near  to  dwellings,  where  wild 
fur-bearers  do  not  travel  in  daylight  hours ;  the  grass  in 
which  the  nest  is  placed  droops  so  closely  over  the  nest 
that  the  eggs,  though  white,  cannot  be  seen  by  a  hawk 
passing  only  a  few  inches  above  them. 

The  nest  of  the  marsh  wren  is  rather  loosely  con- 
structed of  dead  brown  and  whitish  rushes  interwoven 
in  the  tall  green  grasses  and  reeds,  and  is  therefore 
easily  visible  by  contrast,  and  doubtless  is  perceived  by 
the  ever  busy  marsh  hawk,  but  is  never  disturbed  owing 
to  the  fact  that  the  opening  to  the  nest  instead  of  being 
at  the  top,  the  usual  place,  is  at  the  opposite  extreme 
and  consequently  invisible  from  above. 

The  cat  bird  and  robin,  which  are  unlike  in  color, 
build  their  nests  in  identical  surroundings  in  many  in- 
stances, though  the  latter  often  selects  the  more  open 
and  exposed  places;  the  blue  jay  makes  its  nest  in  a 
cedar  tree,  which  it  does  not  remotely  resemble  in  color ; 
the  house  wren  chooses  a  small  opening  leading  to  a 
dark  retreat  under  the  eaves  of  country  houses;  the 
phoebe  bird  builds  its  nest,  when  possible,  on  a  beam  on 


684  NATURE   NOTES 

the  under  side  of  a  bridge;  owls,  flickers  and  the  blue 
bird  build  in  hollow  trees;  swallows  make  their  mud 
nests  upon  the  rafters  in  barns,  or  within  unused  chim- 
neys ;  and  the  martin  nests  in  rather  deep  holes  in  sheer 
cliffs — as  a  rule  nesting  places  are  chosen  with  reference 
to  concealment  to  insure  the  preservation  of  the  ex- 
pected brood,  rather  than  the  protection  of  the  old  birds, 
which  manifestly  place  their  dependence  for  safety 
chiefly  on  immobility  while  on  their  nests. 

If  harmony  in  coloring  of  fur  and  feather  and  en- 
vironment assure  protection  to  creatures  preyed  upon, 
then  it  must  be  of  comparatively  equal  advantage  to 
those  that  prey  and  which  are  similarly  endowed. 

The  weasel  in  winter  wears  a  coat  of  white  fur, 
which  we  may  assume  obscures  the  animal  as  it  dashes 
hither  and  thither  over  the  snow  in  quest  of  a  field  mouse 
or  grouse  for  its  morning  repast,  and  which  instead  of 
being  clothed  in  white  are  habited  in  the  grey  or  brown 
dress  worn  in  summer ;  it  is  an  excellent  theory  for  the 
weasel,  but  a  disastrous  condition  for  the  unsuspecting 
mouse  and  grouse,  and  in  its  successful  operation  would 
seem  to  indicate  that  the  Creator  graciously  provides  for 
the  blood-thirsty  weasel,  but  is  indifferent  to  His  more 
beautiful  and  lovable  creatures. 

The  weasel,  again,  is  white  in  winter  whether  the 
ground  is  covered  with  snow,  or  bare  and  brown ;  under 
the  latter  condition  the  weasel  becomes  the  conspicuous 
one,  and  mouse  and  grouse  perceiving  it  from  afar  read- 
ily escape,  and  the  murderous  weasel  failing  to  obtain 
breakfast,  dinner  or  supper  must  soon  perish  of  hunger. 

In  the  realm  of  abiding  snow  and  ice  the  Polar  or 
white  bear  grows  to  an  immense  size  upon  a  diet  of  seal 


NATURE  NOTES  685 

meat ;  the  monster  ice-bear  has  to  catch  the  seal  before  it 
can  dine  upon  it,  and  to  do  so  must  slowly  and  very  cau- 
tiously approach  the  seal  as  it  fitfully  sleeps  upon  the  ice 
in  close  proximity  to  a  "blow  hole"  through  which  it  will 
surely  escape  if  it  becomes  alarmed ;  the  bear  can  scarce- 
ly be  discerned  in  its  environment  of  ice  hummocks  and 
snow  mounds,  and  if  skillful  will  remain  unobserved  un- 
til discovery  is  of  no  avail  to  the  seal — lucky  bear;  un- 
happy seal. 

In  the  region  of  abounding  snow  we  find  the  fox 
and  its  prey,  the  Ptarmigan,  both  of  which  are  white  in 
winter;  the  fox  and  ptarmigan  being  identical  in  color 
with  their  environment  ought  to  be  invisible  to  one  an- 
other ;  but,  theoretically,  the  fox  enjoys  an  advantage  in 
being  able  to  approach  the  birds  unperceived,  and  should 
therefore  catch  all  of  them;  on  the  other  hand  it  is  the 
ptarmigan  that  is  favored  because  of  the  inability  of 
the  fox  to  see  it  at  all,  and  none  should  be  caught — as  a 
matter  of  fact  both  may  be  found  in  their  accustomed 
haunts  whenever  we  wish  to  study  the  lesson  afield. 

Theories,  it  may  be  remarked  in  passing,  do  not 
have  to  be  logical.  The  mouse  and  the  grouse  often  fall 
a  prey,  and  many  times  evade  the  sinuous  weasel;  the 
Polar  bear  sometimes  catches  the  seal,  and  often  fails 
to  do  so;  now  and  then  the  fox  catches  the  ptarmigan, 
and  quite  as  often  the  beautiful  bird  wings  its  way  to 
safety.  The  weasel,  bear  and  fox  succeed  in  the  hunt 
only  as  the  motion  of  their  advancing  bodies  escape  the 
notice  of  their  intended  victims ;  this  knowledge  is  mani- 
festly the  heritage  of  both  bird  and  beast,  prey  and 
preyer.  Unless  hunter  and  hunted  are  extremely  near 
each  other,  within  the  compass  of  a  bound,  at  the  in- 


636  NATURE    NOTES 

stant  when  the  latter  makes  its  dash  or  splash  or  flutter 
toward  safety,  the  hunter  at  once  abandons  the  chase, 
turns  aside  and  begins  anew  its  quest  of  a  meal  in  some 
field  of  fairer  hope. 

Black,  red,  and  silvery  foxes  are  found  in  the  same 
litter,  an  exceptional  condition  among  wild  animals, 
though  young  muskrats  in  the  same  family  sometimes 
vary  from  light  to  much  darker  shades  of  brown.  Fur 
seals  and  sea  otters  are  black  when  born,  and  gradually 
change  to  greyish ;  hair  seals  are  at  birth  perfectly  white, 
and  subsequently  change,  assuming  the  several  distinct 
hues  and  markings  characterizing  the  different  mem- 
bers of  the  family. 

Albinos,  single  specimens,  are  occasionally  found 
among  all  fur-bearers ;  once  in  a  while,  but  not  of tener, 
trappers  have  found  in  their  traps  a  pure  white  beaver, 
raccoon,  skunk,  or  muskrat. 

PROTECTIVE  NATURE 

Wise  laws  expressly  enacted  for  the  purpose  un- 
doubtedly operate  to  delay  the  extinction  of  our  beauti- 
ful, interesting  and  valuable  fur-bearers,  but  nature  af- 
fords them  a  greater  degree  of  protection  than  is  accord- 
ed by  friendly  statutes,  however  rigidly  enforced. 

Late  in  the  autumn,  when  the  radiant  warmth  of 
the  sun  is  reduced  in  intensity  o'er  the  earth  and  sea,  and 
frost  and  ice  and  snow  prevail,  all  fur-bearing  animals 
begin  to  develop  a  heavier  growth  of  fur,  which  in- 
creases in  density  until  the  creature  possesses  a  coat 
that  is  perfectly  protective  against  the  severest  cold  of 
dreary  winter. 

Eiarly  in  the  spring  the  order  is  reversed,  the  animals 


NATURE  NOTES  587 

putting  off,  or  shedding,  a  considerable  portion  of  their 
fur  on  account  of  the  rise  in  temperature ;  the  remaining 
fur  while  ample  for  the  needs  of  the  little  beasts,  is  so 
changed  in  quantity,  texture  and  color  as  to  be  valueless 
for  manufacturing  purposes.  The  laws  of  the  land  pro- 
hibit the  killing  of  fur-bearers  in  summer,  but  owing  to 
the  greed  of  man  such  laws  would  prove  only  partially 
protective  except  for  the  efficient  co-operation  of  nature. 

HIBERNATORS 
The  black  bear  hibernates,  or  spends  the  winter  in 
sleep  in  a  den  chosen  by  it  for  the  purpose ;  the  bear  does 
this  for  the  same  reason  that  the  dog  barks  and  bites, 
and  all  importantly  because  of  its  inability  to  procure 
food  in  winter,  none  being  available,  the  general  diet  of 
the  bear  consisting  of  berries,  fruits,  honey  and  a  few 
other  things.  The  bear  has  the  warmest  coat  of  all  the 
animals,  and  consequently  its  pleasant  dreams  are  never 
disturbed  by  the  cold.  When  it  issues  from  its  hiberna- 
cle  in  the  spring  its  ordinary  food  supply  is  still  minus  in 
quantity,  and  unless  it  is  very  successful  in  fishing  ex- 
periences many  hungry  moments  while  waiting  for  early 
berries  to  mature. 

The  woodchuck,  or  ground  hog,  also  hibernates  for 
the  same  reasons,  but  as  it  is  a  vegetarian  it  fares  better 
after  awakening  in  the  spring.  The  belief  that  the 
woodchuck  always  awakens  on  February  2,  need  not  be 
entertained. 

The  skunk  hibernates  for  several  days  or  weeks  at  a 
time  from  December  to  March,  on  account  of  inability 
to  procure  its  usual  food,  grubs,  insects,  frogs,  fruits 
and  certain  plants ;  the  animal  is  rather  wantonly  killed 


588  NATURE    NOTES 

by  farmers  because  it  is  sometimes  found  near  hen 
roosts,  where  it  is  really  hunting  a  den  and  not  a  hen. 
Six  or  ten,  or  more,  skunks  spend  the  winter  in  company 
in  the  same  den,  thus  keeping  each  other  warm,  and  oc- 
casionally suffocating  the  colony.  On  very  pleasant 
days  the  skunk  leaves  its  den  and  briefly  roams  abroad, 
not  to  obtain  food,  it  knows  better,  but  to  get  a  refresh- 
ing drink — and  possibly  to  calculate  the  date. 

NATURAL  HUNTERS,  TRAPPERS  AND 
FISHERS 

Men  have  been  hunters  and  trappers,  of  necessity 
and  for  gain,  ever  since  the  flood.  Earliest  hunters  used 
stones  and  clubs,  bows  and  arrows,  pits  and  deadfalls, 
with  varying  degrees  of  success ;  today  they  are  provided 
with  matchless  guns  and  rifles,  and  a  variety  of  ingenius 
traps,  and  the  capture  of  several  million  animals  annually 
makes  it  evident  that  chance  has  been  largely  superseded 
by  work,  toil  greatly  surpassing  in  struggle  and  suffering 
anything  experienced  by  the  ancients ;  work  which  rarely 
receives  "a  just  recompense  of  reward,"  as  the  major 
portion  of  the  wealth  added  to  the  world's  treasure  gar- 
nered from  the  trail  and  trap  accrues  to  masterful  cap- 
ital rather  than  to  sacrificial  labor. 

Some-when  and  somewhere  the  deserving  hunter 
and  trapper  will  come  into  his  own. 

All  of  the  fur-bearers  that  are  hunted  and  trapped 
for  their  fur,  particularly  those  that  are  carnivorous,  are 
born  hunters,  trappers  and  fishers;  some  of  them  are 
savage  and  cruel,  and  a  few,  noticeably  the  felines,  tor- 
ture their  victims  previous  to  killing  and  devouring  them. 
Many  of  the  cornivora  are  exceedingly  swift,  cunning. 


NATURE   NOTES  539 

skillful,  patient  and  persistent  both  in  hunting  and  fish- 
ing. 

The  Polar  bear  is  a  remarkably  patient  hunter ;  it  will 
wait  for  hours  at  a  blow  hole  for  a  seal  to  rise  to  breathe, 
and  when  it  appears  kill  it  almost  instantly  with  a  single 
blow  of  its  mighty  paw. 

The  wolf  and  lynx  will  run  many  miles  without  ap- 
parent weariness  in  pursuit  of  their  prey. 

The  fox,  weasel,  wolverine,  and  all  members  of  the 
cat  tribe  are  cunning,  persistent  and  successful  hunters. 

The  dog,  mongoose,  ferret  and  chetah  are  trained 
by  man  to  hunt  for  him;  they  need  to  be  tamed  more 
definitely  than  trained  for  the  purpose,  as  they  are  nat- 
ural hunters. 

The  otter,  seal,  pekan,  or  fisher,  raccoon  and  mink 
are  expert  fishers,  some  of  them  being  wholly  dependent 
for  food  upon  their  skill  in  catching  trout,  salmon,  and 
smaller  fry. 

The  Polar  bear  is  both  hunter  and  trapper,  his  mas- 
sive paw  being  the  trap,  for  much  of  his  game  comes  to 
him  and  merely  has  to  be  caught. 

In  instances  the  wolf,  operating  in  pairs,  both  hunts 
and  traps,  one  wolf  "lying  in  wait"  while  the  other 
drives  the  quarry  to  it  to  be  caught. 

Among  feathered  creatures,  the  eagle  and  all  hawks 
are  specially  noted  for  their  efficiency  as  hunters  and 
fishers.  The  flycatcher  hunting  its  game  on  the  under 
side  of  leaves  of  fruit  trees,  the  robin  stealthily  stalking 
earth  worms  at  dawn  or  twilight,  the  wren  alertly 
searching  the  retreats  of  caterpillars  and  grubs,  the 
night-hawk  capturing  insects  in  the  air,  and  the  wood- 
pecker unerringly  locating  fat  grubs  half  an  inch  or 


640  NATURE   NOTES 

more  beneath  the  bark  of  great  trees,  are  all  extremely 
interesting  hunters  worthy  of  patient  observation  and 
study.  Hawks,  herons,  cranes,  the  pelican  and  king- 
fisher are  fishers  of  the  first  class,  and  they  catch  more 
finny  beauties  than  all  human  devotees  of  the  rod,  ex- 
cept, possibly,  the  small  boy  who  cuts  his  "pole"  in  the 
swamp  near  the  brook  in  which  he  casts  his  line.  The 
pelican,  being  an  exceptionally  successful  and  industri- 
ous fisher,  and  being  provided  with  a  natural  creel,  is 
trained  to  exercise  its  piscatory  skill  for  the  benefit 
of  its  human  owner,  the  cute  Chinee. 

Ducks  are  good  fishers ;  some  of  them  live  so  nearly 
exclusively  on  fish,  that  the  fishy  taste  and  odor  makes 
their  flesh  undesirable  for  human  food. 

The  anteater,  a  hairy  creature,  makes  a  high  score 
as  a  trapper,  using  as  a  trap  its  long,  rough  tongue  which 
it  thrusts  into  an  anthill  and  permits  it  to  remain  "set" 
until  it  is  covered  with  ants  and  then  withdrawing  it 
devours  the  catch. 

The  spider  is  the  most  ingenious,  laborious  and  effi- 
cient of  all  natural  trappers ;  and  the  only  one  that  shows 
great  constructive  ability  in  making  its  own  trap,  sets  it 
in  manifest  knowledge  of  the  habits  and  haunts  of  the 
game  to  be  caught,  and  constructs  at  the  rear  of  the  trap 
a  "blind"  in  which  to  lie  concealed  and  ready  to  instantly 
pounce  upon  and  perfectly  secure  every  creature  enter- 
ing it.  The  web  of  the  spider,  designed  by  the  spinner  to 
serve  solely  as  a  trap,  is  a  marvel  in  beauty,  design  and 
workmanship,  composed  wholly  of  exceeding  delicate 
threads  or  filaments,  spun  in  a  series  of  constantly  en- 
larging circles,  beginning  at  a  center  and  continuing 
outward  to  a  periphery  of  ten,  twenty  or  more  inches  in 


NATURE   NOTES  541 

diameter,  the  circles  being  crossed  and  united  by  innum- 
erable, slightly  spaced,  radii  of  the  same  flimsy  threads ; 
the  web  is  sustained,  and  kept  in  effective  position,  by 
cables  of  the  same  material  attached  to  branches,  grass, 
posts  or  other  convenient  objects  suited  to  the  purpose ; 
this  seemingly  fragile  trap  is  really  remarkably  strong, 
and  is  perfectly  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  trapper,  the 
capture  of  the  food  required  to  sustain  its  if e ;  a  creature 
too  large  and  strong  to  be  held  by  the  trap  occasionally 
blimders  into  and  breaks  through  it,  but  the  spider,  which 
is  constantly  on  guard,  though  hidden  from  view, 
promptly  repairs  the  damage,  and  in  a  few  moments  the 
trap  is  again  in  working  order. 

The  trap  of  the  spider,  attached  to  proper  supports, 
is  set  perpendicular  to  catch  flies  and  other  insects  in 
their  usual  horizontal  flights ;  and  is  also  set  horizontal, 
near  the  ground  to  capture  unwarry  insects  which,  as 
the  heat  of  the  day  increases,  drop  down  out  of  the  air  in 
quest  of  cool  hiding  places.  Great  numbers  of  these  spi- 
der traps  are  set  quite  closely  together  in  the  grass  and 
weeds  growing  along  the  sides  of  country  roads  where 
flies  and  insects  abound  and  which,  being  frequently  dis- 
turbed by  passing  vehicles  and  pedestrians,  flit  back  and 
forth  from  the  roadway  to  the  grass  at  either  side  of  it ; 
many  of  them  instead  of  alighting  on  the  sward  enter  the 
traps,  from  which  there  is  no  escape.  Though  hundreds 
of  these  devices  are  set  only  a  few  feet  or  inches  apart, 
we  may  pass  them  many  times,  even  walk  over  and  upon 
them,  without  noticing  them,  but  on  a  foggy  morning  the 
mist-laden  threads  are  clearly  visible,  interesting  and 
impressive;  and  we  realize,  probably  for  the  first  time, 
that  the  spider  spinning  its  cunningly  wrought  web  sets 


542  NATURE    NOTES 

a  trap  which  not  alone  supplies  its  own  daily  needs  but 
concurrently  renders  an  immeasurably  important  ser- 
vise  to  man  in  effecting  the  destruction  of  millions  of 
inimical  insects  which,  if  not  thus  prevented  from  multi- 
plying, would  render  human  life  practically  unendur- 
able. 

"The  spider  taketh  hold  with  her  hands,  and  is  in 
king's  palaces."    Proverbs  30 128. 

She  "taketh  hold  with  her  hands"  not  only  in  the 
palace  of  the  king,  but  in  the  hut  of  the  peasant,  serving 
well  and  wonderfully  all  the  people. 

WEATHER  PROPHETS 

Careful  observers,  particularly  farmers,  experi- 
enced hunters  and  professional  trappers  who  are  most 
concerned,  confidently  assert  that  certain  animals  are 
unerringly  weather-wise,  and  that  they  never  fail  to 
note  and  prepare  for  climatic  changes  some  time  in  ad- 
vance of  their  occurrence;  these  human  lovers  of  nature, 
who  spend  most  of  their  wakeful  hours  outdoors  have 
learned  to  read  many  of  the  signs  as  readily  as  scholars 
read  books,  and  they  always  place  the  utmost  confidence 
in  their  interpretations  of  them. 

Some  of  the  animals  announce  approaching  storms, 
rain  or  snow  according  to  the  season,  others  predict 
clearing  conditions,  but  the  greater  number  exercise 
their  prophetic  powers  in  foretelling  changes  in  tempera- 
ture, and  generally  write  their  "signs"  considerably 
antecedent  to  the  event. 

If  the  raccoon  elects  to  feed  upon  ripened  corn 
early  in  the  fall,  to  the  neglect  of  its  usual  food,  a  severe 
winter  may  be  expected,  and  is  usually  realized.    Fair 


NATURE   NOTES  543 

weather  may  be  "looked  for"  when  a  cat  licks  its  fur 
downward,  from  head  to  tail,  the  direction  in  which  it 
naturally  lies.  If  the  cat  licks  its  fur  in  the  other  direc- 
tion, it  is  considered  a  sure  sign  of  a  coming  storm — re- 
gardless of  signs,  an  unpleasantness  of  some  kind  nearly 
always  follows  when  the  "fur  is  rubbed  the  wrong 
way." 

The  tree-toad  sings  loudest  just  in  advance  of  a 
shower ;  most  animals  note  the  approach  of  rain  in  sum- 
mer, not  because  of  their  prophetic  knowledge,  but 
owing  to  a  very  pronounced  change  in  atmospheric  pres- 
sure. 

The  squirrel  indicates  the  character  of  the  coming 
winter  by  the  quantity  of  nuts  and  acorns  it  carries  to  its 
den  in  a  tree,  or  conceals  in  many  places  in  the  ground ; 
if  the  greater  supply  of  food  is  stored  in  the  tree,  severe 
cold  and  much  snow  may  be  expected ;  on  the  contrary, 
if  the  nuts  are  hidden  "here,  there  and  everywhere"  in 
the  ground,  the  winter  will  be  mild  with  a  light  snowfall. 

The  muskrat  is  a  fairly  correct  weather  prophet; 
when  it  builds  its  house  unusually  high  trappers  and 
other  observers  wisely  prepare  for  a  winter  of  more  than 
ordinary  severity,  with  a  succession  of  heavy  snow 
storms,  and  are  rarely  agreeably  disappointed.  This 
building  habit  of  the  muskrat  also  promises  exception- 
ally high  freshets  in  the  following  spring,  and  there  is  no 
record  to  show  that  the  muskrat  ever  regretted  the  extra 
labor  expended  in  adding  a  story  or  two  to  its  winter 
dwelling. 

When  the  woodchuck  digs  an  unusually  deep  bur- 
row, as  shown  by  the  great  amount  of  earth  heaped 
about  the  entrance,  and  carries  into  the  burrow  a  mass 


644  NATURE    NOTES 

of  leaves,  grasses  and  other  warm  bedding,  plenty  of  ice 
and  snow  may  be  expected  to  characterize  the  ensuing 
winter. 

The  beaver  gathers  its  winter  supply  of  food  prior 
to  the  beginning  of  severe  frosts,  but  never  very  far  in 
advance  of  that  period,  and  by  watching  the  prescient 
animal  observers  of  long  experience  readily  determine 
whether  the  winter  will  open  early  or  late;  when  the 
beaver  builds  a  very  thick  dam,  a  cold  winter  is  certain 
to  be  experienced  in  that  particular  section. 

The  skunk  sheds  its  fur  earlier  in  the  spring  than 
any  other  animal,  and  when  it  begins  to  do  so,  there  will 
be  no  more  "hard  freezing,"  though  there  may  be  many 
chilly  days  and  nights  before  the  ground  will  be  warm 
enough  to  safely  plant  corn. 

Settled  spring  weather  will  surely  prevail  after  the 
bear  issues  from  the  den  in  which  it  has  slept  during  the 
winter;  the  bear  is  never  in  a  hurry  to  wake  up,  as  it 
somehow  knows  that  the  food  it  needs  after  a  winter's 
fast  cannot  begin  to  grow  while  the  ground  is  frozen. 

The  woodchuck,  or  ground  hog,  according  to  com- 
mon belief,  awakens  from  its  long  winter  sleep  on  the 
second  day  of  February  and  walks  out  of  its  burrow  to 
"see  what  the  weather  is";  if  the  sun  shines,  and  the 
woodchuck  consequently  "sees  its  shadow,"  winter 
weather  will  continue  for  "six  weeks" ;  if  it  is  a  cloudy 
morning,  the  woodchuck  knows  that  the  winter  is  ended 
and  it  need  not  return  to  its  burrow — this  sign  fails 
north  of  Florida.  We  may  accept  the  predictions  of  all 
the  weather-wise  animals  except  the  woodchuck,  which 
is  incapable  of  telling  a  falsehood,  but  cannot  help  being 
the  subject  of  prevaricators.     If  the  woodchuck  ever 


NATURE  NOTES  545 

comes  out  of  its  den  on  February  two,  it  surely,  shadow 
or  no  shadow,  goes  back  again  in  a  hurry,  for  however 
well  it  might  endure  the  icy  blasts  of  subsequent  days,  it 
would  starve  to  death  while  awaiting  the  coming  of  gra- 
cious April  showers.  The  claim  that  the  ground  hog 
emerges  from  its  burrow  to  study  the  "signs,"  is  an  in- 
fallible sign  that  the  sleepy  animal  is  not  weather-wise, 
and  if  it  were,  like  all  prophets,  would  be  "without  honor 
in  its  own  country,"  and  deservedly  so  for  occasionally 
prophesying  the  end  of  winter,  without  plainly  stating 
which  end. 

MOLE 

The  ground  mole,  which  spends  its  allotted  days  of 
unknown  number  under  ground,  is  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable fur-bearers  known  to  man ;  though  not  longer 
or  broader  than  a  man's  hand,  it  is  wonderfully  alert, 
and  its  senses,  particularly  hearing  and  smelling,  are 
perfect;  its  fore  paws  are  short,  flat,  disproportionately 
large,  and  are  provided  with  strong,  sharp  nails,  and 
constitute  a  pair  of  shovels  not  exceeded  in  rapidity  of 
operation  by  the  modern  trench  digger.  One  sense, 
sight,  is  deficient;  the  creature,  however,  has  small 
black,  bead-like  eyes,  sunken  beneath  the  fur,  and  which 
are  movable  outward  and  inward  at  will,  and  serve  all 
its  needs ;  the  faculty  of  drawing  the  eyes  down  beneath 
the  fur  is  nature's  kindly  provision  for  their  protection 
while  the  mole  is  engaged  in  plowing  its  tunnels  with  its 
shovel-like  fore  feet  which  project  at  right  angles  from 
the  body;  the  eyes  are  doubtless  of  little  service  to  the 
animal  in  its  travels,  chief  dependence  being  placed  upon 
the  sharp,  hairless  snout,  which  is  the  organ  of  both 
scent  and  touch. 


546  NATURE    NOTES 

OPOSSUM  LORE 

If  the  opossum  ever  "plays  dead"  to  escape  an  all- 
devouring  foe,  the  enemy  thus  sought  to  be  avoided  is 
the  snake,  which  is  the  only  creature  that  unmistakably 
prefers  to  eat  live  food.  "The  serpent  is  more  subtle 
than  any  beast  of  the  field,"  but  temporarily  meets  its 
match  when  the  opossum  sees  it  first — if  the  solemnly 
reported  trick  of  the  opossum  is  not  a  fervid  fable.  If 
the  opossum  instead  of  "making  believe"  dead,  or  try- 
ing to  run  away,  would  permit  the  serpent  to  overtake 
it,  the  quadruped  could  readily  tickle  the  snake  to  death 
with  its  grippy  tail — this  is  another  tale  of  the  opossum 
to  be  taken  with  a  little  chlorid  of  sodium. 

In  its  arborial  travels  the  opossum  uses  its  prehen- 
sile tail  as  a  hand,  not  in  going  up,  but  in  coming  down ; 
when  the  animal  wishes  to  descend  it  curls  the  end  of  its 
tail  around  a  branch,  holds  fast  thereby,  and  fearlessly 
swings  down  head  first  to  the  limb  next  below,  which  it 
could  not  otherwise  reach,  and  to  which  it  dare  not  jump. 

When  man  lost  his  tail,  as  he  is  supposed  to  have 
done,  he  parted  with  one-half  of  his  ability  as  a  climber ; 
he  is  still  able  to  go  up,  but  in  coming  down,  otherwise 
than  with  a  thud,  the  insignificant  opossum  leads  super- 
man as  effectively  as  it  deceives  the  subtle  serpent. 

LYNX  AND  RABBIT 

A  strenuous  competitive  struggle  for  existence  is 
ceaselessly  waged  by  the  lynx  and  the  rabbit ;  and  though 
the  contest  has  been  maintained  during  the  ages,  neither 
has  gained  more  than  a  temporary  triumph;  and  for 
that  reason  lynx  and  rabbit  still  abide  in  the  same  terri- 
tory.    If  we  begin  our  observation  of  conditions  at  a 


NATURE   NOTES  547 

period  when  very  few  lynx  exist,  we  shall  find  rabbits 
exceedingly  abundant ;  as  time  goes  on  we  will  each  sea- 
son note  an  increase  in  the  number  of  lynx,  and  a  gradual 
reduction  in  rabbit  life ;  and  continuing  our  observations 
for  a  period  of  about  seven  years  will  find  that  the  lynx 
have  greatly  multiplied,  and  that  only  a  few  rabbits  re- 
main— a  complete  reversal  of  the  condition  prevailing  at 
the  beginning  of  the  seven-year  period.  Continuing  our 
observations  we  will  soon  note  a  very  slight  decrease  in 
the  number  of  lynx,  and  if  we  extend  our  study  over  a 
second  term  of  seven  years  will  find  each  season  fewer 
lynx  and  an  ever  increasing  number  of  rabbits,  and  at 
the  end  of  the  seventh  year  scarcely  any  lynx,  and  rab- 
bits super-abundant. 

The  explanation  is  obvious.  The  rabbit  constitutes 
the  most  satisfying  food  of  the  lynx,  and  when  only  a 
few  of  the  latter  exist  and  the  former  are  very  abundant, 
the  lynx  readily  procuring  an  excess  of  nourishing  food 
for  itself  and  young  thrives  and  rapidly  multiplies,  and 
the  steady  increasing  number  to  be  fed  effects  a  con- 
stant decrease  in  the  food  supply,  particularly  of  young 
rabbits  which  are  easily  caught  even  by  the  young  lynx ; 
with  the  exhaustion  of  the  food  supply  the  lynx,  old  and 
young  gradually  perish  of  hunger,  and  the  birth  rate 
declines  until  only  a  few  remain — at  which  state  of  the 
see-saw  the  rabbit  again  begins  to  multiply — and  so  on, 
ad  infinitum. 

HOPS 

The  hop-worm,  which  feeds  upon  the  hop  vine,  is  a 
wasteful  devourer ;  it  eats  its  way  once  through  a  vine  at 
a  point  a  few  inches  under  ground,  thereby  completely 
destroying  it.    The  skunk  is  the  most  deadly  foe  of  the 


548  NATURE   NOTES 

hop-worm,  which  it  esteems  as  food,  and  if  given  free 
access  at  night  to  single  vines  or  cultivated  hop  yards, 
will  unerringly  discover  the  worms,  dig  them  out  of 
their  tunnels  and  devour  them;  in  a  large  hop  yard  dur- 
ing the  growing  season  a  skunk  is  worth  about  five  dol- 
lars a  night. 

Unrestrained  in  operation  the  hop  worm  would  in 
a  little  while  practically  effect  prohibition,  or  radical 
changes  in  the  composition  of  common  beer;  strangely 
the  despised  skunk  elects  to  become  the  friend  and  ally 
of  the  beer  drinker.  It  does  not  follow  that  the  beer 
drinker  will  ultimately  develop  into  a  devourer  of  hop 
worms,  or  that  the  skunk  will  necessarily  become  a  guz- 
zler of  beer,  but  the  record  leads  to  the  conviction  that 
of  the  two  the  skunk  is  not  incontroverbility  the  worst. 

POLECAT 

The  polecat,  a  European  animal,  possesses  the 
strange  power,  peculiar  to  a  few  insects,  of  suspending 
animation  without  killing  certain  creatures  upon  which 
it  feeds ;  it  is  declared  that  it  effects  this  result  by  biting 
the  frog,  toad  or  other  small  animal  through  the  brain, 
thereby  causing  paralysis  of  nerves  and  sinews,  but  no 
other  injury;  the  creatures  thus  bitten  are  carried  to  its 
den  by  the  polecat  to  constitute  a  reserve  stock  of  food 
which  will  remain  perfectly  fresh  until  required. 

BEAVER 

The  beaver,  which  builds  a  greater  and  grander 
house  than  any  of  the  mighty  beasts,  is  incorrectly  cred- 
ited with  the  possession  of  unerring  knowledge,  the 
claim  being  advanced  that  the  beaver  never  makes  a  mis- 


NATURE   NOTES  649 

take.  It  surely  commits  one  fatal  error  in  making  its 
lodge  so  conspicuous  that  "the  wayfaring  man  though  a 
fool"  cannot  fail  to  observe  it,  his  observation  invariably 
being  followed  by  the  death  of  practically  every  mem- 
ber of  the  colony.  It  is  true  that  the  beaver,  as  consti- 
tuted, would  perish  of  hunger  and  exposure  during  the 
winter  without  its  wonderful  dam  and  protective  lodge, 
and  this  being  the  greatest  peril  of  which  it  is  instinctive- 
ly aware  it  builds  accordingly,  without  anxious  concern 
regarding  probable  bridges,  and  therefore  cannot  be 
said  to  be  an  unwise  wise  artisan. 

Perfect  wisdom  is  not  found  on  land  or  sea — is  not 
expressed  in  the  hewn  stone  castle  of  a  king,  or  the 
judgment  of  a  sage,  more  surely  than  in  the  lodge  of 
sticks  and  stones  and  clay  constructed  by  the  beaver. 

One  other  fur-bearer,  the  muskrat,  builds  a  conspic- 
uous house,  readily  discoverable  to  the  youngest  as  well 
as  the  most  experienced  trapper — ^builds  to  perfectly 
meet  dangers  instinctively  apprehended,  and  has  sur- 
vived, as  it  could  not  have  done  if,  being  more  human,  it 
had  idly  disregarded  known  perils  in  quivering  fear  of 
formless  foes.  Beavers  and  muskrats  may  now  build 
in  greater  security  than  formerly,  as  in  nearly  all  States 
of  the  Union  and  all  the  Provinces  of  Canada,  laws  have 
been  enacted  for  the  protection  of  both  animals  and  their 
houses. 

FOX 

In  order  to  perpetuate  the  fur-bearers  Noah  took  two 
of  each  species  with  him  in  the  ark,  and  since  that  time, 
if  not  prior  to  that  event,  the  fox  has  continued  to  live 
in  pairs,  and  in  consequence  of  this  habit  has  developed 


650  NATURE    NOTES 

individuality  in  a  marked  degree;  gregarious  animals 
are  all  alike  as  regards  methods  of  procuring  their  food, 
exhibitions  of  courage,  fear,  concealment,  and  other  par- 
ticulars, but  one  fox  differs  from  another  fox  as  stars 
differ  in  glory.  The  young  fox  doubtless  learns  much 
from  its  parents,  but  when  it  goes  out  into  the  world  to 
seek  its  own  home  and  living,  its  new  environment, 
newly  encountered  dangers,  comparative  ease  or  diffi- 
culty experienced  in  procuring  food,  and  the  conscious- 
ness, a  term  seemingly  permissible,  that  it  must  look  out 
for  "number  one"  because  no  one  else  will,  the  young- 
ster, instead  of  invariably  following  the  ways  common 
to  all  members  of  the  tribe,  displays  remarkable  person- 
ality in  action,  which  though  readily  noticed  is  rarely 
understood  and  therefore  considered  fully  explained  by 
one  word — cunning. 

It  is  manifest  to  observers  that  an  old  fox  knows 
more  .than  a  young  one,  for  it  is  incontrovertible  that 
if  all  were  governed  solely  by  what  we  understand  as 
instinct — "an  operation  of  the  mind  independent  of  ex- 
perience, and  without  having  any  end  in  view" — old  and 
young  foxes  should  or  would  act  alike  in  similar  circum- 
stances, instead  of  so  unlike  as  to  excite  our  astonish- 
ment. 

The  fox  evidently  learns,  and  as  surely  remem- 
bers, and  combining  knowledge  and  experience  is  able 
to  initiate;  all  experiences  are  not  alike;  all  difficulties 
and  perilous  situations  are  not  identical  in  cause  or  de- 
tail, but  as  these  unlike  conditions  arise  the  old  fox  meets 
them,  not  in  the  same  way  in  which  it  effected  narrow 
escapes  in  previous  dissimilar  circumstances,  but  differ- 
ently, not  always  wholly  independent  of  past  experience, 


NATURE   NOTES  551 

but  surely  depending  upon  new  tricks  and  tactics  evoked 
by  the  exigency  of  the  moment. 

A  young  fox  suddenly  aroused  by  a  hound  will  at 
once  seek  the  nearest  hiding  place ;  in  like  circumstances 
the  common  brown  hare  will  dash  away  at  full  speed 
and  in  a  few  moments,  if  closely  pursued,  will  invariably 
circle  back  to  the  spot  in  which  it  was  reposing  when  dis- 
covered by  the  hound ;  the  hunter  counts  upon  this  hom- 
ing habit,  and  quietly  awaiting  the  return  of  the  hare 
usually  bags  it,  unless  he  is  a  poor  marksman.  The  little 
hare  knows  perfectly  the  tortuous  runs  and  paths  which 
it  has  made  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  its  home,  but 
the  outside  world  is  strange  to  it,  and  therefore  in  its 
very  limited  knowledge  clings  to  its  home  as  the  only 
place  of  safety;  while  the  hare  thus  runs  its  circle  with 
a  definite  "end  in  view,"  in  doing  so  it  readily  becomes 
the  prey  of  its  devouring  enemies. 

An  old  fox  approached  by  a  hound  may,  if  circum- 
stances permit,  quickly  enter  one  of  its  underground 
dens  and  while  the  closely  pursuing  dog  seeks  to  follow 
it  pass  out  of  the  den  by  another  somewhat  distant  and 
less  conspicuous  exit,  and  so  leisurely  trot  to  a  known 
safe  retreat  many  miles  away,  the  hound  meanwhile 
continuing  to  bark  and  burrow  manifestly  quite  confi- 
dent, because  of  the  single  sense  of  smell,  that  the  fox  is 
still  within  the  den.  Instead  of  pursuing  this  course, 
the  fox  may  at  first  dash  away  across  fields  and  brooks 
in  a  straight  line,  curves  and  circles,  making  long,  speedy 
runs  and  taking  frequent  rests,  not  "without  any  end  in 
view,"  but  for  a  definite  purpose,  either  to  cause  the 
hound  to  lose  the  scent,  and  so  end  the  chase ;  or  to  con- 
fuse its  pursuer  as  to  the  direction  taken  by  the  pursued, 


562  NATURE    NOTES 

and  so  lead  the  hound  to  retrace  its  steps  and  thus  afford 
reynard  ample  time  to  effect  its  escape ;  the  fox  in  alter- 
nately running  and  resting  aims  to  tire  out  the  hound 
which,  not  apprehending  all  fox  tricks,  continues  to  fol- 
low a  warm  scent  until  its  strength  is  exhausted.  The 
fox  evidently  "knows  a  lot,"  much  more  than  we  sup- 
pose ;  it  is  not  conceivable  that  it  chooses  a  long  chase,  in 
instances  continuing  many  hours,  when  a  short  run 
would  insure  its  safety ;  we  may  infer  that  it  fairly  com- 
prehends the  unvaried  method  of  an  enemy  which  has 
assailed  it  more  than  once,  and  its  own  most  effective 
line  of  defense ;  that  it  knows  exactly  what  to  do  when 
trailed  by  Fido  for  the  third  time,  and  has  recourse  to 
first  one  trick  and  then  another,  more  if  need  be,  when 
pursued  for  the  first  time  by  another  hound  or  mongrel. 

Reynard,  like  some  humans,  lives  by  his  wits;  and 
sooner  or  later  likewise  perishes  in  consequence  of  ex- 
cessive confidence  in  fallible  wisdom. 

In  the  great  State  of  Pennsylvania  the  fox  is 
classed  as  vermin,  and  is  charged  with  destroying  many 
game  birds — which  sportsmen  and  pot  hunters  would 
like  to  get;  the  sportsmen  seemingly  forget  that  game 
birds  and  foxes  have  been  co-inhabitants  of  the  same 
patch  of  land  from  the  dawn  of  time,  and  that  the  fox, 
if  guilty  as  charged,  has  in  all  ages  been  a  very  provi- 
dent feeder,  and  wonderfully  considerate  of  the  needs 
of  fox  posterity. 

TERRAPIN 

Maryland  trappers  and  foxes  are  active  competi- 
tors in  catching  terrapin ;  but,  paradoxical  as  it  may  ap- 
pear, if  the  trapper  would  systematically  devote  all  his 


NATURE   NOTES  568 

time  to  trapping  foxes  to  the  extreme  of  extermination, 
he  would  catch  more  terrapin — later.  The  terrapin, 
after  the  manner  of  other  members  of  the  tortoise  tribe, 
crawls  up  on  the  beach  to  lay  its  eggs  in  the  sand,  and  in 
so  doing  leaves  a  broad  trail  which  the  fox  follows  until 
it  finds  the  place  where  the  eggs  were  deposited — and 
that  closes  the  history  of  the  hatch;  one  fox  will  find, 
dig  up  and  devour  all  the  eggs  laid  by  a  number  of  ter- 
rapin, and,  unless  he  is  captured,  brer  fox  will  continue 
to  feast  on  terrapin  eggs  to  the  end  of  the  season. 

A  young  fox  will  find  a  buried  terrapin  nest  as 
readily  as  an  old  animal,  and  manifestly  knows  a  terra- 
pin trail  and  the  meaning  of  it  the  first  time  it  sees  one ; 
just  how  it  acquired  this  particular  knowledge,  unless 
its  mother  taught  it,  is  an  interesting  mystery ;  there  are 
very  few  terrapin,  all  lay  their  eggs  only  once  a  year  and 
very  nearly  at  the  same  time,  where  they  cannot  be  dis- 
covered by  sight  or  scent. 

If  we  knew  how  much  dumb  animals  know,  our 
fund  of  information,  probably  our  knowledge,  would  be 
materially  increased. 

TAILS 

Tails,  which  for  a  part  of  the  anatomy  of  most 
furry,  hairy  and  feathered  animals,  are  not  merely 
ornamental,  but  are  serviceable  in  many  ways,  and  es- 
sentially so.  Equines  and  bovines  use  their  tails  as  ever 
ready  and  effective  fly  swatters,  and  thus  escape  the 
cruel  intentions  of  many  fierce  foes. 

Canines  wag  their  tails  vigorously  as  an  expression 
of  joy  upon  meeting  a  human  friend;  wag  them  very 
differently — slowly  and  doubtfully,  when  first  meeting 


554  NATURE    NOTES 

another  canine;  maintain  them  extended  and  rigid  on 
scenting  or  pointing  a  bird,  and  move  them  slowly  from 
right  to  left  and  the  reverse  when  running  a  trail. 

The  beaver  uses  its  tail  as  a  helm  when  swimming, 
a  trowel  when  engaged  in  building  its  lodge  or  dam,  and 
in  sounding  an  alarm  on  the  approach  of  an  enemy. 

The  round  tail  of  the  muskrat  serves  the  animal  as 
a  rudder  in  its  tortuous  course  through  the  water. 

The  squirrel  has  a  handsome  bushy  tail  which  aids 
the  animal  in  maintaining  its  balance  as  it  swiftly  runs 
along  the  branches  of  high  trees ;  the  tail  turned  forward 
over  the  back  deflects  light  winds  which  would  ruffle  and 
penetrate  the  fur ;  the  tail  serves  to  cover  and  protect  the 
feet  while  the  squirrel  is  sleeping. 

The  otter  employs  its  tail  as  a  helm  in  swimming,  and 
in  steering  its  course  when  sliding  down  steep  river 
banks.  The  tail  of  the  opossum  serves  the  animal  as  a 
fifth  hand  in  climbing,  and  is  very  freely  used  in  de- 
scending from  one  branch  to  another  which  could  not 
otherwise  be  reached;  all  opossums  and  most  monkeys 
have  prehensile  tails,  and  they  use  them  freely. 

When  frightened,  angered,  or  about  to  engage  in 
battle,  most  members  of  the  cat  family  very  expressively 
whisk  their  tails  from  side  to  side,  and  beat  the  ground 
with  them  more  and  more  rapidly  to  the  instant  of 
springing  upon  their  foe,  or  dashing  away  in  retreat. 

Careful  observers  understand  this  tail  language 
fairly  well,  but  it  doubtless  means  much  more  to  those 
who  wear  the  tails  in  manifest  appreciation  of  their 
manifold  utility. 


(I^ffgprins 


Infant  fur-bearers  are  not  invariably  named  after 
their  parents,  but  are  designated  in  the  fur  trade  by 
titles  and  terms  which  shatter  all  family  relations  and 
which,  if  heard,  would  bewilder  a  naturalist,  and  para- 
lyze a  philologist. 

The  American  marmot  is  called  a  prairie  "dog," 
because  it  barks — a  sound  reason,  but  one  not  uniformly 
observed  in  naming  fur-bearers;  very  young  muskrats 
are  called  kittens,  though  they  utter  no  cat-like  cry,  have 
f  urless  tails  and  swim  like  ducks  and  fish. 

The  offspring  of  a  musk  ox  is  a  calf ;  but  both  par- 
ents are  always  mentioned  as  musk  oxen — no  one  ever 
heard  of  a  musk  cow. 

The  prize  goes  to  the  seal ;  the  mature  male  is  a  bull, 
the  female  is  a  cow,  and  the  offspring  regardless  of  sex 
are  pups,  are  sometimes  called  cubs,  and  when  one  year 
old  the  males  are  designated  as  bachelors — taken  col- 
lectively seals  and  sealing  are  officially  referred  to  as  the 
seal  fishery. 

The  aged  goat  is  known  as  Billy,  the  female  as  Nan- 
nie, and  the  offspring  as  kids ;  this  seems  to  prove,  if  at 
all  affirmative,  that  the  goat  is  more  nearly  allied  to  the 
genus  homo  than  any  other  species,  and  accounts  for  the 
headiness  of  both. 

The  Ainos,  natives  of  the  Kurile  Islands,  are  so 
completely  covered  with  hair  that  the  Japanese  assert 
that  they  are  descended  from  bears,  but  are  too  mani- 
festly human  to  be  killed  as  fur-bearers.  Research 
might  prove  them  to  be  the  posterity  of  Esau. 

555 


iHaterta  MtUta 

Fur-bearers  contribute  to  the  real  pleasure  and 
comfort  of  man  by  furnishing  him  with  warm  clothing, 
oil  for  lighting  and  lubricating  purposes,  delicious  food, 
tools  and  weapons,  prophetic  warnings  regarding  that 
absorbing  subject,  the  weather,  and  additionally  pro- 
mote his  welfare  by  supplying  him  with  sundry  specifics 
of  great  curative  power.  In  some  of  the  truly  rural  dis- 
tricts of  England  it  is  believed  that  the  tongue  of  a  fox, 
cut  from  the  living  animal,  renders  the  person  carrying 
it  immune  to  all  diseases — we  would  except  brain  strain. 

This  remedy  has  a  serious  drawback,  as  the  person 
using  it  is  sure  to  die  very  soon  after  meeting  a  fox  at  a 
place  where  two  roads  cross — and  ought  to  die  much 
sooner. 

Marrow  from  the  large  bones  of  the  stag  was  for- 
merly prescribed  as  a  cure  for  certain  diseases,  but  was 
valued  only  by  English  physicians  of  the  very  old  school ; 
in  recent  times  it  has  been  taken  internally  to  relieve  a 
"ravenous"  appetite. 

In  some  cantons  of  Switzerland  colds  and  other  af- 
fections are  promptly  cured,  it  is  said,  by  a  dose  consist^ 
ing  of  five  or  six  drops  of  the  blood  of  the  steinbok 
taken  in  a  glass  of  wine ;  in  the  United  States  the  home- 
opathic quantity  of  blood  is  considered  unnecessary, 
"rock  and  rye"  being  independently  effective.  In  rural 
England  many  believe  that  a  sty  on  the  eye  may  be  cured 
by  brushing  the  eye  with  a  hair  plucked  from  the  caudal 
appendage  of  a  black  cat ;  the  same  treatment  serves  as 
a  preventive.  In  former  days  the  right  forefoot  of  a 
hare  was  carried  in  the  pocket,  any  pocket,  as  a  pre- 

556 


MATERIA   MEDICA  657 

ventive  of  rheumatism,  and  doubtless  was  as  eflfective  as 
a  horse  chestnut  persistently  toted  for  the  same  purpose. 
The  negro  voodoo  doctor,  even  in  enlightened  America, 
still  carries  a  rabbit  foot  somewhere  about  his  person 
and  considers  it  an  irresistible  charm,  working  good  to 
himself  and  evil  to  his  enemies. 

Bear  fat  once  ranked  very  high  as  a  never-failing 
remedial  agent  for  increasing  the  growth  of  the  human 
hair ;  but  as  the  supply  was  small,  and  adulterants  were 
freely  used,  patients  were  put  to  it  to  catch  their  own 
bears  as  the  only  sure  means  of  obtaining  the  genuine 
article.  Bear  galls  are  regularly  used.  Castor,  a  pun- 
gent substance  found  in  two  sacs  in  the  beaver,  has  long 
been  considered  as  an  excellent  antispasmodic;  beaver 
"castors"  are  regularly  collected  in  Canada  and  the 
United  States  in  quantity,  and  offered  at  the  London 
public  sales  of  furs. 

The  odorous  fluid  secreted  in  the  pouch  of  the  civet 
was  at  one  time  quite  generally  prescribed  by  practicing 
physicians,  and  though  it  "worked  wonders"  has  been 
superseded  by  more  or  less  potent  specifics  procurable  at 
lower  cost. 

Muskrat  skins,  worn  with  the  fur  next  to  the  person, 
will  relieve,  if  they  do  not  cure,  the  severest  case  of  asth- 
ma ;  the  fur  is  warm  and  electrical,  and  is  more  protective 
against  cold  than  softest  knitted  fabrics ;  the  skin  should 
be  worn  over  the  lungs,  both  on  the  chest  and  back. 

Cat  skins,  to  be  worn  in  the  same  way  are  recom- 
mended in  cases  of  lung  trouble ;  a  live  kitten,  owing  to 
the  fact  that  cat  fur  is  charged  with  electricity,  would 
be  even  more  efficacious,  but  is  not  so  easily  applied  or 
retained  in  the  position  where  it  will  "do  the  most  good." 


In  China  and  India  the  fat  of  the  tiger  is  used  in 
single  and  compound  forms  to  cure  rheumatism;  and 
nearly  all  parts  of  the  body  are  said  to  possess  valuable 
remedial  properties. 

Some  Chinese  doctors,  who  are  not  anxious  to  pro- 
cure testimonials,  prescribe  or  administer  the  scrapings 
of  deer  horns  as  a  sure  cure  for  vertigo;  it  is  doubtful 
if  any  one  but  a  Chinaman  can  take  the  remedy  without 
contracting  the  disease. 

In  some  sections  of  the  United  States  where  every 
one  has  a  remedy  to  offer,  skunk  oil  is  considered  an 
infallible  cure  for  rheumatism,  stiff  joints  and  all  ach- 
ing bones,  and  doubtless  does  soften  and  assuage;  but 
mortals  endowed  with  supersentitive  olfactory  organs 
regard  the  remedy  as  worse  than  the  disease.  The  pun- 
gent fluid  which  characterizes  the  skunk,  and  is  gener- 
ally dreaded,  is  also  credited  with  wonderful  medicinal 
qualities,  and  is  occasionally  prescribed  in  cases  of  asth- 
ma— but  most  sufferers  choose  to  endure  the  ills  they 
have  rather  than  fly  to  a  remedy  they  know  so  well. 

Furriers  prepare  deer  skins  for  invalids,  not  to  be 
taken  as  medicine,  but  to  be  used  as  cool,  restful  couches, 
for  which  purpose  they  are  incomparable. 

558 


The  raccoon  as  an  efficient  destroyer  of  harmful 
grubs  and  insects  is  invaluable  to  agriculturists,  and  as 
a  fur-bearer  is  of  great  worth  to  furriers  if  captured 
when  the  fur  is  prime;  it  has  remained  for  the  legisla- 
ture of  the  great  State  of  Pennsylvania  to  classify  the 
raccoon  as  a  game  animal,  and  to  legalize  its  capture  in 
September — at  which  time  the  fur  is  valueless — to  grat- 
ify selfish  Keystone  "sports."  In  some  parts  of  the 
country  the  raccoon  is  hunted  by  men,  boys  and  dogs  on 
all  moonlight  nights,  and  in  defending  itself  is  game  to 
the  last,  but  not  in  the  sense  comprehended  by  framers 
of  game  laws,  most  of  which  are  strangely  human  in 
that  they  are  "fearfully  and  wonderfully  made."  Kill- 
ing raccoon  just  to  kill  and  calling  it  sport,  is  a  perver- 
sion of  terms  outclassed  only  by  the  declaration  that 
"war  is  a  blessing  in  disguise." 

Some  men  count  it  sport  to  attend  a  hanging,  wit- 
ness a  prize  fight,  or  view  with  delight  a  revolting  battle 
to  the  death  between  two  cocks;  if  these  "sports"  were 
autocrats,  men,  coons  and  birds  would  soon  vanish  from 
terra  firma,  and  the  only  pleasure  remaining  for  the 
sports  would  be  the  final  sporty  act  of  "dog  eat  dog." 


^tr  (Buxtin  in.  Hamtision 

We  close  the  records  with  a  brief  reference  to  a 
man  of  vision,  who  knew  his  own  times  so  well  that  he 
was  able  to  clearly  scan  the  age  in  advance,  discern  the 
needs  of  his  immediate  contemporaries,  those  just  com- 
ing upon  the  scene,  and  the  throng  following;  he  was 
not  only  able  to  perceive,  but  was  capable  of  devising, 
directing  and  executing  methods  of  incomparable  value 
and  benefit  to  the  fur  trade  at  large. 

Curtis  M.  Lampson  was  born  in  New  Haven,  Ver- 
mont, in  1805;  when  a  young  man  he  sought  and  found 
employment  in  the  fur  business  in  New  York,  and  proved 
so  attentive  and  efficient  that  when  an  emergency  arose 
he  was  chosen  as  the  one  best  prepared  to  cope  with  the 
condition,  and  was  despatched  to  London  with  all  neces- 
sary authority  in  the  matter.  Mr.  Lampson  had  the  fur 
trade  at  heart,  and  in  a  short  time  developed  plans,  and 
interested  capital,  for  having  American  raw  furs  sent  to 
London  in  quantity  to  be  attractively  offered  as  a  unit 
on  specified  dates,  convenient  alike  to  shippers  and  buy- 
ers, not  at  private  sale  but  in  public  auction,  in  fair,  open 
competition  to  merchants  from  all  parts  of  the  world. 

Mr.  Lampson  became  a  British  subject,  we  believe, 
to  more  effectually  carry  out  his  plans,  and  in  order  to 
develop  to  the  utmost  American  fur  interests.  He  chose 
London  as  a  permanent  center  of  operation  funda- 
mentally on  account  of  the  fact  that  he  found  men  and 
commercial  conditions  there  pronouncedly  in  harmony 
with  his  own  character,  mercantile  instincts,  and  moral 
training  in  his  boyhood  home. 

He  found  London  merchants  absolutely  honest, 

560 


I5>ir 


"^  V^Emn^tin 


w 


ith  at 


J ;  1       i.  txi 


■y  in  h 

cts,  and  ii' 


ht^'m--  ,<■ 


^ir  £urtis(  iW.  Hamps^on 


SIR  CURTIS   M.   LAMPSON  563 

held  from  sale — the  fact  was  not  advertised,  or  even 
privately  circulated  among  shippers  or  buyers.  This  is 
only  one  of  many  ways  in  which  Mr.  Lampson  was  in- 
strumental in  placing  a  hitherto  somewhat  haphazard 
trade  upon  a  sound  business  basis,  and  a  higher  plane 
than  others  deemed  attainable. 

As  general  interest  increased,  the  scope  of  the  sales 
was  greatly  enlarged;  their  importance  was  augmented 
by  the  inclusion  of  European  furs,  and  then  Australian 
peltries,  and  in  due  course  skins  from  Asia,  South  Amer- 
ica, Africa,  and  the  islands  of  the  sea,  including  upwards 
of  250,000  fur  seal  skins  per  annum  for  the  full  period 
of  the  catch  at  its  maximum  quantity.  It  is  not  strange 
that  this  world-war,  which  closed  London  as  a  market  of 
supply  and  interchange  to  so  large  a  part  of  the  civilized 
universe,  paralyzed  the  fur  trade  for  many  weary  months 
— and  that  recovery  is  as  yet  only  a  hope. 

Mr.  Lampson  rendered  valuable  assistance  in  mak- 
ing the  Atlantic  cable  a  certainty,  and  was  noticeably 
broad  minded  and  public  spirited.  England,  in  recogni- 
tion of  his  worth,  conferred  upon  him  the  title  of 
baronet. 

We  regret  our  inability  to  present  a  later  photo- 
graph of  Sir  Curtis  M.  Lampson.  One  was  mailed  to 
us  in  London,  but  was  withdrawn  by  the  Censor. 

We  are  indebted  to  A.  V.  Eraser,  Esq.,  New  York, 
for  photograph  shown. 


MEMO. 
Daniel  Leonard,  see  page  342,  died  October  26, 
191 7,  at  Richmond,  while  on  his  way  to  Florida.    Born 
October  3,  1839. 


Tables  appended  show  the  offerings  of  raw  furs  at 
the  several  sales,  Messrs.  C.  M.  Lampson  &  Co.,  and  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Company,  and  concerns  of  later  date,  held 
in  London  by  decades  for  one  hundred  years,  1813  to 
191 2;  all  the  years  from  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century  might  be  given,  but  space  will  not  permit;  the 
record  closes  with  1912  owing  to  the  fact  that  reliable 
statistics  cannot  be  given  for  a  later  date  on  account  of 
bad  business  conditions  in  1913  to  1915,  causing  many 
thousands  of  skins  to  be  withdrawn  from  one  sale  to  be 
offered  in  another,  and  still  later  sales,  no  record  of  the 
total  number  thus  manipulated  being  available. 

Table  I. 

Badger  

Bear   

Beaver   

Cat,  House    

Cat,  Wild 

Chinchilla 

Ermine 

Deer  and  Elk 

Fisher 

Fox  

Fur  Seal 

Hair  Seal 

Lynx    

Marten   

Mink    

Monkey,  African 

Musk  Ox 

Muskrat   

Opossum,  American . . 
Opossum,  Australian.. 

Otter,  Land 

Otter,  Sea 

Rabbit 

Raccoon  

Skunk  

Squirrel   

Wolf  

Wolverine  


1813 

1823 

1833 

1843 
884 

8,307 

4,748 

22,698 

11,246 

88,738 

56,923 

60,335 

51,196 

*  3,221 
88,456 

37,290 

48,443 

159,300 

124,700 

2,616 

4,765 

6,896 

9,294 

7,072 

23,190 

70,262 

66,224 

*  4,167 

ii.iie 

17.866 

13,321 

10,981 

89,112 

71,418 

108,215 

746 

28,698 

99,742 

134,240 

148,379 

258,662 

160,846 

772,447 

10,921 

11,164 

11,685 

14,476 

2,506 

970 

1,000 

1,500 

1,096 

80,034 

365,387 

394,372 

6,480 

416 

2,967 

12,793 

963 

684 

248 

1,228 

564 

TABLES  565 


Table  II.                            1853  1863  1873  1883 

Badger  955  1,295  1,563  745 

Bear    10,774  10,552  12,983  12,088 

Beaver    63,902  136,760  169,149  152,725 

Cat,  House 

Cat,  Wild   5,426  5,355  13,670  7,094 

Chinchilla    48,970  37,785  20,560  25,953 

Ermine 

Deer  and  Elk 88,841  3,100  8,857          

Fisher    8,802  8,079  6,627  6,488 

Fox    82,905  84,400  111,223  122,821 

Fur  Seal 2,714  27,986  171,569  171,336 

Hair  Seal 1,750  16,692  8,776  1,895 

Lynx   5,578  7,810  7,280  11,460 

Marten    .- 101,024  127,310  93,212  104,506 

Mink   232,791  93,240  107,015  179,950 

Monkey,  African 17,686  32,800  23,430  60,541 

Musk  Ox 

Muskrat    1,800,402  2,322,19*  2,600,869  3,031,948 

Opossum,    American..           54,407  89,579  250,464  183,160 

Opossum,  Australian..          313,339  934,950 

Otter,  Land 15,626  21,885  16,913  15,912 

Otter,  Sea 3,005  5,090  5,679 

Rabbit  82,430  39,300  6,450  13,600 

Raccoon    508,542  478,514  462,516  401,890 

Skunk   6,459  99,611  262,472  586,242 

Squirrel   

Wolf   7,228  8,203  9,228  2,142 

Wolverine   1,104  1,374  1,891  1,842 

Table  III.  1893  1903  1912 

Badger   33,074  10,842  23,415 

Bear  29,457  33,987  21,172 

Beaver    95,009  77,646  60,949 

Cat,  House 70,001  61,831  120,452 

Cat,  Wild   4,010  20,028  25,479 

Chinchilla   172,048  153,180  27,911 

Ermine 6,501  123,915 

Deer  and  Elk 

Fisher 7,675  7,003  2,737 

Fox  225,149  162,250  213,900 

Fur  Seal  71,333  158,010  26,619 

Hair  Seal   4,496  16,674  100 

Lynx    13,759  14,091  12,573 

Marten  109,314  152,214  55,394 

Mink 300,541  253,938  158,940 

Monkey,  African    123,583  113,583  6,032 

Musk  Ox 871  1,271  292 

Muskrat   3,067,850  3,792,363  5,099,072 

Opossum,  American '      371,196  170,708  1,386,410 


1863 

1873 

1883 

,945,990 

3,151,125 

2,151,041 

13,011 

22,109 

24,911 

1,600 

450 
50,242 

555,495 

273,236 

313,669 

555,166 

939,797 

1,527,771 

136,236 

130,759 

280,000 

22,642 

29,494 

126,223 

800 

949 

2,088 

43,310 

157,050 

566  TABLES 


Opossum,  Australian 1,945,990 

Otter,  Land   

Otter  Sea  

Rabbit 

Raccoon 

Skunk 

Squirrel    

Wolf    

Wolverine   

Civet  Cat   

During  the  past  twenty-five  or  thirty  years  several  articles,  in 
addition  to  those  given  in  the  tables,  have  been  sent  forward  to  the 
London  Sales  from  time  to  time,  latterly  with  fair  regularity,  to  meet 
the  constantly  enlarging  demand  for  fur.  Offerings  of  this  character 
for  one  year,  1912,  are  appended : 

Kitt  Fox 48,096      Mole 385,593 

Russian  Sable 4,357      Marmot 24,500 

Fitch 1,925      Kolinsky  28,168 

Stone  Marten 2,874     Dog 8,600 

Hare 2,111      Persian  Lamb 4,000 

Polar  Bear 113      Squirrel  280,000 

Wombat    8,661      Wallaby   1,258,000 

Australian  Fox 164,565      Kangaroo   24,725 

Chinese  skins  as  follows: 

Fox  10303,  mink  69,886,  marmot  65,329,  civet  7,942,  otter  505, 
kolinsky  64,595,  raccoon  77,288,  kid  180,685,  red  fox  16,530,  white 
rabbit  62,380,  moufflon  12,894,  dog  47,730,  wild  cat  774,  wolf  1,796, 
sable  2,109,  Thibet  lamb  43,505,  Thibet  robes  and  crosses  2,862, 
Mongolian  lamb  705,  dog  robes  758,  deer  rugs  22,221,  black  goat  skins 
141,911,  grey  goat  skins  41,649,  white  goat  skins  31,372,  mixed  gcat 
skins  2,985,  and  small  lots  of  tiger,  leopard,  civet  and  house  cat  skins. 


and  sheep  rugs. 


jFinig 


Each  generation  is  wont  to  regard  its  own  particu- 
lar period  of  activity  in  commercial  and  mercantile 
affairs  as  selfish  and  evil  in  detail  past  precedent ;  but  the 
confirmed  records  of  the  passing  years  impress  the  con- 
viction that  yesterday  was  more  evil  than  to-day.  Co- 
operation is  steadily  outflanking  untoward  competition; 
devious  practices  are  increasingly  giving  place  to  moral 
methods  in  merchandising,  local,  national  and  inter- 
national; the  march  of  the  legions  in  trade  and  com- 
merce is  definitely  forwarded  from  the  better,  already 


FINIS  567 

compassed,  to  the  best,  which  is  being  progressively 
attained. 

The  American  Fur  Trade  is  progressing,  unfolding, 
expanding,  because  it  is  intensely  alive. 

Fur  serves  man  successively  through  each  of  the 
"seven  stages"  of  expanding  experience,  from  bud  to 
fruition;  and  on  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  relieves 
by  a  touch  of  silent  beauty  the  deepening  shadows 
clustering  the  exit  gate  of  earthly  hopes.  The  infant  in 
its  carriage  is  carefully  protected,  not  only  from  "every 
stormy  wind  that  blows,"  but  from  genial  zephyrs,  with 
a  robe  of  softest  fur ;  and  onward  through  all  the  allotted 
years,  until  the  autumnal  frosts  their  withering  work 
perform,  fur  most  delightfully  comforts,  shields  and  pro- 
tects; and  finally  in  the  prescribed  undertakers'  rug  of 
purple,  black,  white,  gold  or  grey,  fur  is  laid  beneath  the 
casket  of  kindred  color  over  which  chants  and  sighs 
commingle  in  an  enforced  farewell. 

The  untutored  Indian  dreams  of  happy  hunting 
grounds,  where  game  abounds,  and  the  chase  will  be 
crowned  with  unvarying  success;  the  trapper,  who  is 
that  and  nothing  more,  indulges  in  visions  of  a  material- 
istic Eden  in  which  sables  exceed  the  sands  in  number, 
and  every  fox  is  black ;  and  fur-bearers,  wild  and  domes- 
ticated, doubtless  revel  in  dreamy  forecasts  of  brilliant 
landscapes,  gurgling  brooks  and  placid  lakes  where  they 
shall  enjoy  surcease  from  woeful  worry  in  abiding  amity. 

Spiritualized  man,  in  his  best  estate,  daily  lives 
anew  in  far  grander  visions,  and  moves  in  majestic  hope 
toward  a  destiny  in  nowise  comparable  to  aught  he  now 
knows — not  present  conditions  vastly  improved,  but  a 
change  in  scene  and  self  transcending  knowledge  before 
which  vaunting  imagination  "pales  its  ineffectual  fires." 


INDEX    TO    PLATES    AND 
ILLUSTRATIONS 


Alaskan  Trophies Frontispiece 

American  Indian 5 

Astor,    John    Jacob — Portrait 

opp.     32 

Australian  Opossum 394 

Aviation  181 

Badger  Head 246 

Beaver    59-255 

Bear    Head 398 

Becker,    O.    Godfrey— Portrait 

opp.  208 

Bison,  American 219 

Bison  Hide,  Indian  Art 376 

Black  Cat 244 

Black    Colobus 441 

Blustein.  David — Portrait,  opp.  216 
Bossak,  Joseph   M — Portrait 

opp.  336 

Bow  and  Arrow 476 

Bow  and  Arrow  Case 41 

Chemidlin,   Jean   B.— Portrait.  294 

Chinchilla 379 

Civet  Cat  Skin 213 

Columbus   Ship 110 

Coney    420 

Cougar  Head 479 

Coypu   381 

Coyote  Head  455 

Dog  Train 232 

Emblem,  Eagles   12 

Ermine     402 

Eskimo   Dog    168 

Eskimo  Head  and  Hood 397 

Eskimo  Quiver   43 

Fashion    183-184 

Fennec  436 

First  Railway  Train 112 

First  Shanty  at  St.  Paul 94 

Fisher 244 

Flying  Squirrel 392 

Fox,  Blue   126 

Fox,  Red 252 


Fox  Set   400 

Fresh  Water  Pond,  N.  Y.  City.     58 

Fur  Seal   134,  136 

Fur  Seal  Skin,  Natural 140 

Fur  Set 373 

Hamster  414 

Herzig,  George  Bernard — Por- 
trait   opp.  224 

litis   412 

Indian   5 

Indian  Arrow 11 

Indian  Fur  Dressing  Tools...  363 

Indian  Head 40 

Interior  of  Fur  Trading  Store.  237 

Kangaroo 391 

Kolinsky    424 

Lion  Head 387 

Lady  Hudson  Seal 187 

Lampson,  Sir  Curtis  M. — Por- 
trait    opp.  560 

Leopard  437 

Liberty   351 

Lynx    242 

Lynx  Skin,  raw,  cased 21 

Madame  Mink 184 

Map,  Alaska 120 

Manne,    Solomon    J. — Portrait 

opp.  512 

Marmot 413 

Marten    241 

Mink    191 

Mischo,   Hugo  J. — Portrait 

opp.  312 

Miss  Black  Muskrat 187 

Mississippi   Steamer   1850 87 

Mole   388 

Monjo,  Nicolas  F. — Portrait...  302 

Moose   Head    75 

Musk  Ox  Head 249 

Mountain  Lion  Head 479 

Muskrat 37,  205 

Muskrats  at  Home 207 


568 


INDEX   TO   PLATES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS 


569 


Nutria   381 

Old     Indians,     Hudson's     Bay 

District    238 

Opossum,  American 38-210 

Opossum,  Australian 394 

Otter  240 

Otter  Skin,  raw,  cased 378 

Panther  Head   479 

Pardine  Lynx   409 

Pekan   244 

Persian  Lamb 447 

Perwitsky    425 

Pfaelzer,    Morris    F. — Portrait 

opp.  272 

Platypus  390 

Polecat— litis   412 

Prong  Horned  Antelope 370 

Puma  Head   479 

Raccoon 202 

Raccoon  Face  353 

Raccoon  Head 271 

Raccoon  Heads  and  Raw  Skin, 

open    204 

Raccoon  Skin,  raw,  cased 85 

Raccoon  Tracks   167 

Red  Fox  Head 261 

Reddy  Fox 173 

Ringtails    214 

Russian   Pony    406 

Ruszits,  John — Portrait ...  opp.  320 

Saint   Paul   1853 92 

Saint   Paul    Island 127 

Sable,  Russian  401 

Schreiber,  Milton — Portrait,  opp.  288 


Sea  Otter    189 

Seal   Killing  Station 141 

Seal   of    Raw    Fur    Merchants' 

Association  51 

Seals  of  New  York  City 47-49 

Sheep 470 

Skunk   198 

Sledding  in  Alaska 567 

Snow  Leopard 426 

Squirrel    404 

Steiner,    David — Portrait,  .opp.  178 
Steiner,  Joseph — Portrait,  opp.  176 

Strange  Seals 154 

Tiger   558 

Tiger  Head 430 

Tottie  in  Fur 69 

Tracks    335 

Trading  Post,  Isle  la  Crosse..  233 

Trading  Post,  Slave  Lake 236 

Trapper,  The 162 

Trappers'  Train    162 

Traps    164 

Treaty  Hall  30 

Uncle 439 

Weasel  429 

Weinberg,    Philip — Portrait...  332 

White  Fox 254 

White  Raccoon  opp.  256 

Wild  Cat  and  Doe 211 

Wolf  417 

Wolf  and  Bear 66 

Wolverine    247 

Wombat  393 

York  Factory opp.  256 


CONTENTS 


Aboriginal  Fur  Dressing  Tools 
Aborigines  Master  Tanners... 

Achan,  a  type 

Adam  and  Eve 

Adams,  T.  W 

Adams,  Udelmer  C 

Adams  Co.,  Udelmer  C 

Advances  Due  to  Fashion 

Africa   435-456 

African  Civet 

African  Fur-Bearers 

African  Hunters  

Alaska    118-137-452 

Alaska  Commercial  Co. 

121-131-138-139 

Alaska,  Fur-Bearers  in 125 

Alaska  Fur  Seal  Skins 

Alaska  Fur  Seals,  latest  statis- 
tics   

Alaska  Fur  Shipments,  1874.. 
Alaska  Fur  Shipments,  1911.125- 

Alaska  Indians 495- 

Alaska  Trading  Posts 

Albany    72-115-116-233- 

Albinos   221- 

Albrecht,  Ernst 

Albrecht,  O.  E. 

Aleuts  Earnings   , . . 

Aleuts    139-140 

Alligator  Skins   

America,  Origin  of  Name 

American   Designers    187 

American  Fur-Bearers   188 

American  Fur  Co. 

26-30-33-36-39-90-297-301 

American  Sable 

American  Squirrels   

American  Stag 

Ames  William  

Ancient  Catalogue 

Angora  Goats 

Angora  Shawls  

Animals  Completely  Eaten. 501- 
Animals  in  Bible  Lands 


361      Annis,  Newton   74 

354      Anteater    640 

34      Antelope    458 

6      Antelope  Skins   293 

274      Ape    523 

345  Apparel,   Everything  Used 9 

346  Arbitration,  Fur  Seal   133 

185      Archangel    405 

.527      Arctic  Circle 238-452 

433      Arctic  Fox 252-396-523-526 

435      Arctic  Wolves 455 

435      Art  Preservative  370 

528  Artists'  Brushes,  Making, .  .486-489 

Asch  &  Jaeckel  325-347 

292      Ashley,  William   82 


•127 


Asia 


. 423-426-448-453-454-456 


257      Asia  Minor 424 

Asiatic  Peltries 382-423-433 

j^47      Assee    436 

gg      Associated  Fur  Manufacturers, 

126  ^"^ ^^ 

52g      Astor  John  Jacob 

J2J  25-26-28-30-32-36-301 

ggg     Astor,  John  Jacob,  Chief 

Source  of  Wealth    36 

Astoria    34-35-297-301 

Astor's  Account  Books   28 

Astrachan  Lambs   423-447 

Atlantic  Cable  387 


536 

96 

96 

148 

-506 
2»g      Auction  Sale,  New  York,  Oc- 

^^  tober,  1917 350 

onA      Auction  Sales,  New  York 158 

ggg      Auction  Sales,  Saint  Louis....     84 

Australia    390-527 

Australia,  Natives  of 527 

Australia,  Topsy-Turvy   523 

Australian  Bear 391 


■477 

199 

404 

45g      Australian  Monkey   391 

318      Australian  Oppossum 393 

270      Australian  Sloth   391 

456      Automobile  Furs   223 

456      Aviation 181 

502  Awards  Columbian  Exposition  117 

504      Baby  Carriage  Robes 424 

570 


CONTENTS 


571 


Backus,  Henry  L 308 

Backus,  M.  M. 308 

Backus,  Nichols  &  Co 308 

Backus,  Osborne  &  Co 308 

Badger    246-400-493-505-507 

Badger  Skin   464-465 

Baker,  J.  G 220 

Balance  in  Animal  Life 520 

Balch,  Price  &  Co 105-345 

Baldwin  Bleecker 309 

Baldwin,  Edward  E 309 

Baltic  Seal 155-156 

Baltimore    340 

Barbarous  Hunters   10 

Baron  de  Courcel 133 

Barr,  Arthur  L 104 

Barter 23'231-256-443 

Baruch,  George  J 327 

Basch,  Herman  368 

Bassett,  J.  C 105 

Bates  C.  Frances 31-100-101 

Bates,  Charles  S 100-101 

Bates,  Martin  100-101 

Bates,  Jr.,  Martin 100-101 

Bay  of  Fundy 458 

Bayer,  Adolph  275 

Bayer,  Brothers    274 

Beads  and  Trinkets 

15-23-42-62-80-90-158 

Bear,  Black   452-525-537-544 

Bear,   Brown    453 

Bear,  Cinnamon   452 

Bear,  Cub   452 

Bear  Diet   , 537 

Bear  Galls 557 

Bear,  Grizzly   453 

Bear,  Polar 

70-126-397-452-506-526-534-539 

Bear  Skins,  Uses 453 

Bears 452-521 

Bears'  Grease 502-557 

Bears  in  Alaska  126 

Beaver 165-166- 

194-400-507-526-529-544-548-554 
Beaver  Castors   557 


Beaver   Cheeks    498 

Beaver,  Chief  Source  of  Supply  239 

Beaver   Colonies    529 

Beaver,  Cut  Fur  498 

Beaver  Dam       529-549 

Beaver,  General  Mechanic 629 

Beaver,  Golden   196 

Beaver  as  Fur  and  Food 194 

Beaver  in  Germany 197 

Beaver  in  Private  Park 197 

Beaver  Lodge  or  House, 

530-544-549 

Beaver,  Skinning  the 195 

Beaver  Tail 507-526 

Beaver  Teeth  and  Feet 526 

Beaver  Trapping    194 

Beaver,  Winter  Food  530 

Beaver  Skin,  Weight 195 

Beaver  Worshipped 495 

Beaver  Skins,  Prices  Raw  1916  258 
Beaver  Skins,  "Properly  Han- 
dled"     195 

Beaver  Skins,  Plucking 364 

Beaver  Skins  Standard  of  Ex- 
change      M7 

Beaver  Standard  of  Value 491 

Becker,  A.  E 208 

Becker,  M.  W 208 

Becker  O.  Godfrey   208 

Becker,  S.  Max 208 

Beer    548 

Beldamers 264 

Belden,   Paul    51 

Belt,  Washington   290-295 

Belt  &  Butler 290-299 

Benedict,  L 342 

Benedict,  Muller 342 

Bennett,  Henry 275 

Bering  Island    151 

Bering  Vitus 118-149 

Berlin   374 

Biehlow,  Charles    89 

Biehlow,  Robert  89 

Bird  Nests 532-534 

Bird  Skins    467-468 


672 


CONTENTS 


Bird,  Wounded  or  Dead 518 

Bishoprick,  N.  J 309 

Bison,   American    ...90-165-219-293 
Bison,   Collection    1878-1886...   220 

Bison  in  Texas  219 

Bison  and  Civilization   220 

Bison,  White  Skin  Sacred 466 

Black  Bear  "Sheds"  Twice 452 

Black  Beaver 255 

Black  Coney   419 

Black  Cat   244 

Black  Cololus   441 

Black  Marten 199 

Black  Wolves   455 

Blankets  vs.  Peltries   80 

Bleaching    365 

Blending 360 

Blended  Fur 193 

Blosveren,  Baron  310 

Blosveren,  Benjamin 310 

Blosveren,  Moss 310 

Blue  Backs  264 

Blue  Pelts  and  Shedders. .  .352-353 

Blustein,  David 216 

Blustein,  Isadore   216 

Board  of  Trade  of  the  Fur  In- 
dustry       55 

Board  of  Trade,  Officers  of. . .     55 
Board  of  Trade,  Organizations 

Embraced    55 

Bolles  &  Rogers 91 

Borden,  Lewis  M 325 

Booss,  Frederick   310 

Booss,  George 310 

Bones   ^ 502 

Borup,  Theodore   96 

Boskowitz,  A 91-279-290 

Boskowitz,  Ignatz   290 

Boskowitz,  Joseph. .  ,91-220-279-290 

Boskowitz,  Leopold 131-290 

Bossak,  Arnold  H 336 

Bossak,  Joseph   M 336 

Boston    99 

Boughton,  Ezra  W 343 

Boughton,  E.  C 276-292 


Bovine  Hair 500 

Bow  and  Arrow  Case 42 

Bowsky,  Adolph   366 

Bowsky,  Max 366 

Boxer  Uprising  in  China 429 

Brain  Dressing  357 

Branding  Seals  142 

Brands  and  Trade  Marks 371 

Bristles    499 

Brown   Coney   419 

Breeding  in  Captivity 266-267 

Bresslcr,   Henry   306 

Briefner,  Louis   295 

Bright  Eyes  520 

Broadtail   423 

Bromley,  Henry  A 100 

Brook  Mink 46 

Brown  Coney   419 

Brushes    485 

Brush-Dyed  Skins   359 

Bryan,  John  115 

Buckskin    503 

Buckskin,    Imitation    of    Cha- 
mois     459 

Bucktail  Party 25 

Buenos  Aires  Lamb  Skins 448 

Buffalo    220-292-449-495 

Buffalo   Coats    451 

Buffalo  Herds  in  Captivity  . . .  452 
Buffalo     Hides,     Dressed     by 

Squaws    451 

Buffalo  Hides  in  Canada 451 

Buffalo  Hides  for  Gloves   459 

Buffalo  Hides,  Last  Collection  450 

Buffalo  Hides  Smoked 451 

Buffalo  Robe   451 

Buffalo  Robes 29,  31,  292,  299 

Buffalo  Robes,  Final  Receipts 

at  New  York 450-451 

Buffalo  Robes,  First  and  Last 

Prices   451 

Buffalo     Robes,     First    White 

Man  Dressed  293 

Buffalo   Robes,   "Indian    Han- 
dled"     451 


CONTENTS 


678 


Buffalo  Robes,  "Whiteman 

Dressed"    451 

Buhl,  Frederick 72 

Buhl,  Walter 72 

Buhl,  Newland  &  Co 74 

Builders   529 

Bulls    494-510 

Burglars  and  Thieves 472 

Burkhardt,  A.  E 348 

Burkhardt,  Carl 348 

Burnett,  W.  J 98 

Butler,  Elliott  L 290 

Butler,  Howard  L 290 

Butter  Used  in  Fur  Dressing. .  355 

By-Products    501-503 

Caama 436 

Cain 14 

Calf  Skins 503-510 

Canada    231-249 

Canada,  Early  Trade 231 

Canadian   Manufacturers 239 

Canadian  Sealers 144 

Canine  Spirits  169 

Cannon 258 

Canoes 27-87-234 

Cap  of  Maintenance 463 

Cape  Flattery 151 

Cape  Horn 150 

Cape  of  Good  Hope 151-438 

Cape  Town '. 456 

Caracal 424 

Caracul,  Caracool 423 

Caribou    459-507 

Carnivorous  Animals    519 

Carroting 496-497 

Carts   27 

Carver,  Captain 82 

Cased % 471 

Castillo  Islands 150 

Cat,  Domestic 

415-429-508-543-554-557 

Cat  Fur,  Sundry  .Names 415 

Cat  Fur,  Uses 416 

Cats,  Good  and  Evil  Spirits...  495 
Cat  Skins  Bartered  at  Fairs...  416 


Cat  Skins  Dyed  at  Leipzig 416 

Centennial    Exposition 117 

Central  America 230 

Chamois   503 

Chances 64-65 

Chapal  Freres  &  Co.  C.  &  E..  36^ 
Charter     Members     Raw     Fur 
Dealers  Association  State  of 

New  York 110 

Charter    Members     Raw     Fur 
Merchants   Association   City 

of   New   York 53 

Chase,  James  115 

Chemidlin,  Jean   B 281-294-303 

Cheesbrough,  Robert 115 

Chetah    539 

Chicago    90-291-305-450 

Children  Coney  Sewers 421 

China  118-119-149 

189-293-424-427-500-508-526 
China,  Furs  Generally  Worn..  428 

China,  Loot  by  Allies 429 

China,  Trade  With  Russia  and 

Siberia    427 

Chinchilla    225-378 

Chinchilla  Breeding 380 

Chinchilla  Habitat  380 

Chinchilla  Skins,  London  1883.  379 
Chinchilla  Skins,  Prices  1883..  379 
Chinchillas  Protected  to  1922.  380 

Chinese  Dog  Skins 279-293 

Chinese   Expert   Fur  Dressers 

and  Dyers 431 

Chinese  Export  Trade 432 

Chinese  Goat  Skins 456 

Chinese  Goat  Plates  and  Robes  293 

Chinese  Manipulated  Sable 428 

Chinese  Merchants  Alert 428 

Chonart,  Medard 231 

Chouteau,  Jr.,  Charles  P 31 

Chouteau,  Pierre 29-294 

Cilley,  John  K 295 

Cilley,   Joseph    L 295 

Cimiotti,  Ferdinand 152 

Cimiotti,  Gustave  152 


574 


CONTENTS 


Civet,  African 433-436 

Civet  Cat 212 

Civet  Cat  Skin 213 

Civet,  Chinese  430 

Clagg,  William  M 278 

Clark,  Jr.,  Louis  233 

Claws    502 

Clawson,  J.  V 304 

Clipping 344 

Coachmen's  Capes  438 

Coat  of  Arms,  Characteristic 

524-528 

Cohn,  Leo  L 339 

Cold  Storage 111-509 

Collections  Sent  to  Holland.  .18-19 

Colobus,   Black   441 

Color 531 

Color  and  Environment 533 

Colt 504 

Color  and  Motion 532 

Color  of  Birds'  Eggs 533 

Columbia  River 35 

Columbian    Exposition 117-316 

Columbus,  Christopher 16 

Combinations 61-62-81 

Combing ,.   356 

Commodore  Warren 292 

Comparative  Values 481-483 

Competition   61,  235,  373 

Conies 504 

Coney  Breeding  in  France 418 

Coney  Dyers,  Belgian   420 

Coney  Dyers,  French  419 

Coney  Dyers,  German 411 

Coney  Dyers,  Lissa 420 

Coney  Flesh  as  Food 418 

Coney  Imitations 359-420-421 

Coney  Fur  in  Hat  Making 418 

Coney  Linings  for  Boots,  etc. .  421 

Coney  Lining  Plates 421 

Coney  Linings,  Three  Classes.  421 

Coney,  Natural   419 

Coney  Sewing  by  Children...  421 
Coney  Sewers  at  Lissa.. 421 


Coney      Skins      Collected      in 

France    418 

Conies,  Belgian 420 

Conies,  French,  Colors 418 

Conies,  German 415-420 

Conies,  Polish  420 

Conies,  "Russian" 421 

Conies,  "Shocks" 420 

Conies,  Spanish 420 

Council,  John 290 

Consumer  Pays  the  Duty 172 

Consumption  of  Furs  in  Can- 
ada     239 

Consumption  of  Furs  1856....     46 

Contraband   143 

Cook,  Captain  James 148 

Copenhagen    397 

Cooper,  John  M 110-345 

Copper  Island   151 

Copper  Island  Fur  Seals 147 

Corbett,  John  N 344 

Coronation  Robes 403-460 

Cotrell,  Edgar 342 

Cotrell,  Joshua 342 

Cotrell   &   Leonard 343 

Cow  Skins    458-510 

Cox,  Ernest  C 123 

Coyote    455 

Coypu   380-498-506 

Coypu,  Attempt  to  Acclimatize  382 

Coypu  Hunting  Season 381 

Coypu  Killed  by  Soldiers 381 

Coypu  Skins  Sold  by  Weight..   381 

Cradle  to  Grave 565 

Crimea  Lamb   Skins 448 

Criminals     Conditionally    Par- 
doned    454 

Crooks,  Ramsey 39-297-301 

Crosett  Island  149 

Crowdus,  J.   C 87 

Crowns   403-462 

Crusoe   and   Friday 518 

Customs  Rulings   172 

Cut  Fur   495-500 

Cut   Fur,    Classification 497 


CONTENTS 


575 


Cut   Fur,   Differences 498 

Cut  Fur,  Marks 499 

Cutting  497 

Cutting   Skins    496 

Czar's  Robe  at  London 461 

Dacosta,  W.  P 309 

Dale,  W.  B 108 

Danish  Merchants   396 

Dark  Eyes    520 

Davis,  John   339 

Davis,  Law 143 

Daughter     of     the     American 

Revolution    31 

De  Comeau,  Olivier   296 

Deer  Horns    558 

De  Saible,  Jean  Baptiste 90 

Deer  Hair 499 

Deer  River   233 

Deerskin  Money 490 

Deer  Sacred  in  Japan 433-527 

Deer  Skins 

83-230-292-296-458-503-558 

Deer   Tails    25 

Deer,  Virginia  459 

Demarest,  G.  L 105 

Deodorizing    Skunk    Fur. .  .200-366 

Designers,  A  Limit 187 

Desolation    Island    148 

Detroit    72 

Differences,  Color  and  Value. .     24 

Dingo,  Wild  Dog  or  Wolf 392 

Dodd,  Horace   102 

Dog    168-504-515-559 

Dog  Skin  Coats 457 

Dog  Skins   293-457 

Doppelschreinge    421 

Doughty  Trappers  77 

Down    501 

Dressed,  Then  Dyed  356 

Dressers   and   Dyers 366 

Dressers'  and  Dyers'  Board  of 

Trade    369 

Dressing  Deodorizes  Fur   355 

Dressing       Renders       Leather 

Pliant    355 


Dry  Goods  Firms  Buy  Furs..  318 

Drummers'   Samples   475 

Duckbill   390 

Duke  of  Albemarle  . . ." 255 

Duke  of  York 19-255 

Dutch  Cats   422 

Dutch   Moles    422 

Dutch   Traders    18 

Dyeing   358 

Dyeing  and  Blending 358 

Dyeing,  Brushed  On 359 

Dyeing   Develops    Beauty  and 

Value    358 

Dyeing,  Dipping  in  Dye 359 

Dyeing  Fancy  Colors 359 

Dyeing  Formulas  Secret 358 

Dyeing  in  United  States 358 

Dyeing  Superstition 360-361 

Ear  of  the  Ox 488 

Earl  of  Arlington   255 

Earl  Craven   255 

Early   Colonists    17 

Early    History    12-21 

Early  Mediums  of  Exchange..     62 

Early  Traders   22 

Early  Seal  Dressing  and  Dye- 
ing        115 

Ears  518 

Ears,  Mobile 518-520 

Ears,  Rabbit  and  Lynx 519 

East   India   Company 427 

Easter  Fair  at  Leipzig 412 

Eichorn,  John   103 

Eider   Down    396-397-468 

Einstein,   Moses    326 

Eisenbach  Bros.  &  Co 50 

Eisenbauer,  William   278 

Electric  Seal 155-419 

Elk,  Habitat 458 

Elk  Skins   255-293-408-458 

Ely,  Moses 316 

Empress  Josephine   461 

Empress  of  Austria 461 

Empress  of  China   461 

Engaging  an  Interpreter 81-82 


576 


CONTENTS 


Enlisting 78-80 

English   Colonies 17 

English  Lambskins   448 

English    Names   of   Fur-Bear- 
ers     218 

Environment     531-532-534 

English  Regiments 453 

Ermine    402-460-464 

Ermine  Tails 403 

Ermine  Trapping  for  Royalty.  460 

Esau   22-555 

Eskimo 397-505-506-522-528 

Eskimo   Animalistic    524 

Eskimo  Couch 468 

Eskimo      Men      and      Women 

Dress  Alike    468 

Eskimo  Quiver   43 

Eskimo  Women  Prepare  Furs  467 

Eskimo  Wolf  Dog 455 

Eskimos  Excel  in  Fur  Dressing  354 

Europe    399-450-454 

European   Lynx    416 

Evolution    392-438-493-494 

Exodus,  Colored  Skins 358 

Eyes    516-545 

Eyes,  Colors  of 516 

Eyes  of  Eagle,  Hawk  and  Vul- 
ture     517 

Fairs    427-442 

Fairs,  Precaution  Against  Fire  443 

Falkland   Islands   150 

False  Prophets'  Apparel 465 

Fancy  Colors  359-374 

Fartar  Sable 424 

Fashion    182 

Fashion  Changes  Frequently..   185 

Fashion    Rules 186-202-207-361 

Fashions'  Decrees   186 

Fat 502 

Favre  Theodore  366 

Fawn     449-468 

Feathers  500-501 

Feet    516-523-524 

Feline 415-538 

Fennec    254-436 


Ferguson,  Paul  R 95-96 

Fertilizer  503 

Fifty  Below  Zero 398 

Films    503 

Finger  Prints 513 

Finis    564-565 

First  Active  Sense  514-520 

First  Fur  Coats 7 

Fisher    244-245 

Fishing   Birds    540 

Fitch    400-413 

Flag  on  Seal  Islands 71 

Flaxman   Dana    334 

Fleet,  William  H 279 

Flippers    505-523 

Flour,  Used  in  Fur  Dressing. .  556 
Flying  Squirrel  395- 
Foot  Prints 516-517 

Foreign  Furs  Inhibited  in  Eng- 
land      385 

Foreign  Trade 58 

Fort  Anderson 43 

Fort  Benton   101-220-299 

Fort  Concho   220 

Fort  Dearborn 90 

Fort  Griffin 220 

Fort  Henry 39 

Fort  Laramie  82-83 

Fort  McLeod 38 

Fort  Pierre  Chouteau 29-31 

Fort  Rice lOl 

Fort  Snelling 29 

Fort  Tecumseh  29 

Fort    Union    31-101 

Fort  William  83 

Forts   37-258 

Forty  Beaver  Skins 19 

Foster,  Jr.,  Hull 348 

Foster,  H.  Z 346 

Foul  Cat   412 

Foul  Martin  412 

Fox   .  .  .237-504-505-517-528-535-539- 
549-552-553-656 

Fox  and  Ptarmigan 535 

Fox,  Black  251 


CONTENTS 


677^ 


Fox,  Blue   122-125-251-396 

Fox  Breeding    267 

Fox,  Criss   126-252 

Fox  Evolution  and  Apothcsis.  493 

Fox  Flesh  as  Food 505 

Fox  Fur,  Uses  of 254 

Fox,    Grey    253 

Fox,  Kitt  or  Swift 254 

Fox,  Most  Numerous 253 

Fox  Red 253 

Fox,  Siberian  Black 433 

Fox,  Silver   125-251 

Fox,  White 122-125-251-396 

Fox,  Yellow 254 

Fox  Skins,  Values,  1912 125 

Fox  Tricks 513-550-551-552 

Foxes 250-524-536 

Foxes  Everywhere 254 

Foxes,  Colors  in  Litter 14-536 

France    416-456 

Franchere  Gabriel.  .263-294-296-303 

Eraser,  Alfred   298 

French  at  St.  Lawrence  River.     20 

French  Mink   46 

French  Names  of  Fur-Bearers  218 

French  Sable   199-475 

French  Seal   155 

Frobisher,  Benjamin  234 

Frobisher,  Joseph 234 

Fuchs,  Karl 311 

Funsten  Bros.  &  Co 83-84 

Fur  and  Hair,  Distinction 473 

Fur  Apparel  in  Russia 408 

Fur-Bearers,  Canada 237 

Fur-Bearers,    Characters 524 

Fur-Bearers  Differ 24 

Fur-Bearers  Endure  Cold  and 

Heat    521-522 

Fur-Bearers  Nocturnal 9-528 

Fur-Bearers,  United  States...     23 
Fur-Bearers,  Source  of  Mystery  510 

Fur-Brokers    85 

Fur  Cash   490-492 

Fur  Clothing 466-470 

Fur  Dressers  and  Dyers 366 


Fur  Dressers'  and  Dyers'  Board 

of  Trade    369 

Fur  Dressing   354-358 

Fur   Dressing,   First   Done  by 

Women   354 

Fur   Dressing   Preceded  Civil- 
ization     354 

Fur  Dressing,  Where  Conduct- 
ed    357 

Fur  Dyeing    358 

Fur  Emporium,  The 234 

Fur-Felt  Hat  Making 495-499 

Fur  Felt 473 

Fur  Food 504-508 

Fur  Gloves   458 

Fur  and  Hair,  Differences.  .362-364 

Fur  Headwear 408 

Fur  Industry  Fascinating 469 

Fur  Laws,  Alaska 166 

Fur  Laws,  Canada 166 

Fur    Laws   Should    Be    En- 
forced      166 

Fur  Manufacturers,  Number..     45 

Fur  Merchants 274-307 

Fur    Merchants'   Credit   Asso- 
ciation     50-114 

Fur  Merchants  of  New  York.     45 
"Fur  News"  Quotations  ...481-483 

Fur  Petticoats 408 

Fur  Pieces    503 

Fur  Poor  Conductor  of  Heat 

525-526 

Fur  Seal  134-539-555 

Fur  Seal  as  Food 506 

Fur  Seal  Avoids  Ice 135 

Fur  Seal,  Catch   1870-1889 139 

Fur  Seal,  Closed  Killing  Sea- 
son     147 

Fur   Seal,   Color 136 

Fur  Seal,  Cost  to  Lessees 139 

Fur   Seal   Dyeing.  .115-116-117-359- 
360-361-367-368 

Fur  Seal,  Habits  of  137 

Fur  Seal,  Latin  Names  155 

Fur  Seal,  Mysterious  Migration  137 


678 


CONTENTS 


Fur  Seal,  Number  of 146 

Fur  Seal,  Old  Males  Fast 135 

Fur  Seal   Oil 507 

Fur  Seal  Period  for  Killing...  140 
Fur  S^eal,  Profits  of  Lessees...  .140 

Fur  Seal  Rookeries 148 

Fur  Seal  Sales,  Dates 386 

Fur  Seal  Skins,  Plucking. .  .364-365 
Fur    Seal    Skins,    Prices    1910- 

1913    .' 124-125 

Fur  Seal  Skins  Rejected  146 

Fur  Seals   119-121-432 

Ft^r  Seals,  Russian  Catch 150 

Fur  Seals,  Winter  Home 137 

Fur  Trade,  The  Term 15 

Fur  Traders 40-41 

Fur     Trading,     England     and 

Russia     385 

Fur  Wearers,  Asia   423 

Fur  Wearers,  Percentage  of..  374 

Fur  Wearing  Restricted 385 

Furrier   175 

Furriers  Patron  Saints    371 

Furry   Coats    525-529-536 

Furry   Felt    522 

Furs  and  Peltries,  Trade  Terms  470 

Furs  and  Stocks 45 

Furs   Exchanged  for  Silk  and 

Tea    427 

Furs  in  Heraldry 462-463 

Furs  in  Lieu  of  Fire 428 

Furs  Medium  of  Exchange 278 

Furs  Reserved  to  Royalty....  468 

Furs  Universally  Popular 469 

Furs,  Uses  of  by  Indians 42 

Furs  Worn  by  Nobles 468 

Furs  Worn  by  Titled  Persons  468 
Furs  Worn  by  the  Wealthy...  468 

Galigher,  John 342 

Galigher,  Louis  C 342 

Galloway  510 

Galloway  Coats    510 

Galls    502 

Gauchos    381 

Gaudig  &  Blum,  G..  113-280-294-347 


Geese  Skins   428 

General  Appraisers   171 

Genesis    5 

Genet     416-435 

George,  Edwin  S 74 

Georger,  Louis  F 316 

German  Names  of  Fur-Bearers  218 

Germany    410 

Germany,  Fur-Bearers  410 

Giants  and  Pigmies 527 

Ginseng    217 

Glanz,  Charles 91 

Glove  Stock 457 

Gloves,  Furs  Used 458 

Glue   503 

Glutton 247 

Goats   456-526-555 

Goats,  Angora 456 

Goats,   Chinese    456 

Goats,    Rocky    Mountain. .  .456-459 

Goat  Skin  Plates   457 

Goat  Skins 293-503-504 

Goat  Skins,  As  Imitations 457 

Goat  Skins  Dyed  at  Lyons 456 

Goat  Skins  Dyed  in  United 

States 457 

Goat  Skins  Tanned  in  China..  457 

Goat  Skins,  Uses  of 457 

God  Did  Not  Make  a  Monkey 
in  Order  to  Create  a  Man..  440 

Goge,  John  J 86 

Gold  Medals,  Paris   310-316 

Gold  Medals,  Philadelphia 117 

Good  Luck  66 

Goodman,  Emil 334 

Goose   172 

Goose  Farms 422 

Gordon,  C.  W 95 

Gordon,    Richard    95 

Gordon  &  Ferguson  95 

Government  Engages  in  Seal- 
ing      123 

Government  Buyers  of  Furs. . .  511 
Grabowsky,  John  Rudolph  . . .  347 
Grabowsky,  William   347 


CONTENTS 


579 


Grading    227 

Graft  in  China 429 

Grand  Prize  Louisiana  Pur- 
chase Exposition   313 

Crasser,  John  C 367 

Great  Britain   384-523 

Great  Britain,  Fur-Bearers  Ex- 
terminated        385 

Great    Britain,    Prominence    in 

Fur  Trade 385 

Great   Britain,   Urged  to   Pur- 
chase  Russian-America    259 

Great  Loft  Buildings 375 

Greely  Expedition   398 

Greenfield,  David  311 

Greenland 262-396-397 

Green  Skins  472 

Greenewald,  Simon   131 

Gregory,  John   234 

Grinnell  Land   398 

Ground   Hog    537 

Gouse  and  Weasel 534 

Gunther,  Christian  G 315 

Gunther,  Ernest  R 315 

Gunther,  Francis  Frederick  . .  316 

Gunther,  Franklin  L 315 

Gunther,  John  Charles  316 

Gunther,  William  Henry 316 

Haas  Leopold   317 

Habbert,  C.  H.  , . ! 278-299 

Hair    474 

Hair  Seal  Leather  266 

Hair  Seal  Oil   262-264 

Hair  Seal  Skins   458 

Hair  Seal,  Weight  of  Young  . .  264 
Hair  Sealing,  Catch  Regulated  264 

Hair  Sealing,  Dangers  of 265 

Hair  Sealing,  Division  of  Prof- 
its     265 

Hair  Sealing,  Killing  Cruel...  265 

Hair   Seals    263-266-396-505-539 

Hair  Seals,  Descriptive  Names  262 
Hair  Seals  Born  on  Ice  Fields  263 

Hair  Seals,  First  Catch 263 

Hair  Seals,  in  Arctics 266 


Hair  Seals,  in  White  Sea 265 

Hair  Seals,  Method  of  Capture  264 

Hair  Seals,  Number  of 263 

Hair  Skin  Shakos 454 

Hair  Seals,  Time  Born  263 

Hairs     499 

Half- Persians     447 

Halle  Brothers   343 

Halsey,  John  C 35 

Hamster  Linings   414 

Hamilton,    L.    A 325 

Hamster  Killed  to  Recover 

Buried  Grain    413 

Hamster  Burrows 413 

Hamster 413-505 

Hamster  Oddly  Marked   413 

Hamster   Plates    414 

Hansen,  John  E 105 

Harbor  Seals   262 

Hare  and  Rabbit  Skins 296 

Hares 408-414-423-432-433-435- 

506-519-551 
Hares  as  Food  and  Clothing..  433 

Hare's  Foot 556 

Hares'  Fur  as  Imitations.  .405-433 

Hares  in  Scotland  415 

Harp  Seal 262 

Harris,    B 83 

Harris,  Henry 317 

Harris  &  Russak 310-317 

Hart,  Taylor  &  Co 220 

Hartman,   Otto   74 

Hartz  Mountains   413 

Hatters  Chief  Retailers  of  Furs 

317-318 

Hatters'  Fur 496-499 

Hawk    517-539 

Hawley,  A.  F 31 

Heads  489 

Heads,  Artificial  489 

Heilbronner,  Alexander 326 

Henry,  Alexander    27 

Heron 517 

Herpich,  Charles  A 299 

Herskovitz,  Albert 281 


680 


CONTENTS 


Herskovitz,  Max 281 

Herskovitz  &  Roth  281 

Herx,  F.  Theodore  318 

Herzig,  George  Bernard 224 

Herzig,  Simon 224 

Hibernating,  The  Reason 525 

Hibernators    537 

Hill,  G.  H 313 

Hillis,  Edward  W 91 

Hoenck,  Richard  P 347 

Hoenigsberger,  A 91 

Hoenigsberger,  Dave  91 

Hoenigsberger,  Harry  L 91 

Hoffman,  Joshua  0 100 

Holland    422 

Hollander,  A 369 

Hollander  &  Son,  A. 369 

Hollander,  Michael  369 

Honorable  Mention  341-348 

Hooded  Seal  263 

Hops 547 

Horns  and  Hoofs 522 

Horse  and  Colt  Skins 458-510 

House  Cat   215 

House  Cat  Everywhere 215 

House  Cat  Fur,  Where  Used.  215 

Houses  in  Trees   531 

Hubbard,  O.  C 105 

Hudson   Bay    232 

Hudson  Bay  Sable 242 

Hudson,  Henry   17-18-357 

Hudson  River   18 

Hudson  Seal   153-155-156-187 

Hudson's  Bay  Company 

238-239-255-256-260 
Hudson's  Bay  Co.,  Ceded  Ter- 
ritory to  Canada   259 

Hudson's  Bay  Co.  Capital 

Stock  Sold  259 

Hudson's  Bay  Co.,  Charter 

Title    255 

Hudson's  Bay  Co.,  Coat  of 

Arms    256 

Hudson's  Bay  Co.,  Collections 

257-258 


Hudson's  Bay  Co.,  Furs  Sold 
in  London 239 

Hudson's  Bay  Co.,  District 
Marks   472-473 

Hudson's  Bay  Co.,  Expiration 
of  Charter    250 

Hudson's  Bay  Co.,  First  Divi- 
dend      260 

Hudson's  Bay  Co.,  First  Sale 
of  Furs    259 

Hudson's  Bay  Co.,  Motto....  256 

Hudson's  Bay  Co.,  New  Char- 
ter     258 

Hudson's  Bay  Co.,  Operating 
Force    256 

Hudson's  Bay  Co.,  Profits  1855  257 

Hudson's  Bay  Co.,  Second 
Dividend    260 

Hudson's  Bay  Co.,  Territory 
Ruled    258 

Hull,  Albert  G 344 

Hull,  Charles  H 344 

Human  Forelock   297 

Human  Greed  8 

Human   Hair    500 

Human   Scent    515 

Hunnewell,  G.  R. 346 

Hunt,  Wilson  P 34-79-80 

Hunter  and  Hunted  Learn...  519 
Hunters' Trophies  Preserved..  371 

Hunting  Birds  539-540 

Huth  &  Co.,  Fredk 276 

Hyde,  Charles  H 109 

Hyde,  Robert  H 109 

Iceland 10-252-262-396 

litis   411 

Imitation  Fur   253 

Imitation,   Foxes    253 

Imitations  in  Cat  Fur 416 

Imitations,  Coney  Fur 

India    16-17-527 

Indian,  Origin  of  Name 17 

Indian   Country    76 

Indian  Fur  Dressing 357 

Indian  Traders  48 


CONTENTS 


Ml 


Indians,  Descent %A 

Indians  Cling  to  Primitive  Cos- 
tume        11 

Indians,  From  Whence? 13 

Indians  Fur  Clad  13 

Indians  Expert  Trappers 14 

Instinct    550 

Irbit   Fair    444 

Irbit,  July  1917 444-445 

Islands  of  the  Sea 384 

Isle  of  Bute 197 

Italy    421 

Jackal   437 

Jackman,  Charles  A 319 

Jackman,  Edward  F. 319 

Jackman,  William 319 

Jackson,  Joseph  A 103 

Jacobson,  Abraham  323 

Jacobson,  James  323 

Jacoby,  S.  M 180 

Jaeckel,  Albert 324 

Jaeckel,  Jr.,  Hugo 326 

Jaeckel,  Sr.,  Hugo 325 

Jaeckel,  Richard  326 

Jagua 382 

Jaguar   Markings    382 

Jamestown,  Virginia 17 

Japan     432-527 

Japanese  Fur  Hunters 432 

Jardine,  Matheson  &  Co.,  Ltd.  282 

Jaulus,  Albert   282 

Jave,  Andre   329 

John  the  Baptist 465 

Johnstown  Relief  Fund 316 

Jonas,  Coloman 348 

Jonas,  John    348 

Kakas,  Edward 103 

Kakas,  Edward  F 103 

Kamtschatka    88-434 

Kangaroo    392 

Karguelen  Islands  149 

Kaufman    Frederick    327 

Kaufman  &  Oberleder 326 

Kaye,  Charles   326 

Kaye  &  Einstein   326 


Kearney,    Thomas 316 

Keel  Boats  87 

Keeping  Up  With  Paris 374 

Kenyon,  N.  P 309 

Kid  Skins   448 

King  Charles  II 19-255 

King  Cotton    501 

King,  Edward  J 300 

Kitt  Fox 254-383 

Kittson,  Norman  W. 36 

Koala    391 

Kluckhohn,  Charles  L 95 

Koene,  Robert 347 

Kohl,   William    131 

Kolinsky    424 

Kolinsky  Tails 425 

Komandorski   151 

Konvalinka,  John 327 

Korn,  Raphael  C 326 

Kraus,  Henry 176-300 

Krauss,  L 340 

Krimmer   448 

Kuriles 151-432-434-555 

Labrador    258-260-262 

Lachine 234 

Laclede 60-76 

La  Framboise,  Joseph 29 

La  Salle 20 

Lake  Athabaska 233 

Lake  Superior 27 

Lambskins 383-422-444-446-503 

Lamson,  Jr.,  Jarvis 105 

Lamson,  Sr.,  Jarvis 105 

Lampson,  Sir  Curtis  M.  387-560-562 

"Lampson    Assortment"    562 

Lansdowne,  G.  E.  S 340 

Lapham  &  Co 86 

Lapland   ; 408 

Laramie  Plains   449 

Laplanders  Fur  Clad 408 

Lard  and  Oil 355 

Law  of  Supply  and  Demand..  183 

Leather    503 

Leipzig 410 

Leipzig  Fair 445 


582 


CONTENTS 


Leipzig:  Fur  Dressers 411 

Leipzig  Fur  Merchants 411-427 

Leipzig  Public  Sales 305-411 

Lengthening  Mink  Skins 193 

Leonard  Daniel 342-563 

Leopard    423-435-437-504-507 

Leopard  Cats 430 

Leopard  Rugs  437 

Leppert,  Charles  A 85 

Lewis  and  Clarke 20 

Liberty  Bonds 351 

Liebes,  George 89 

Liebes,   Herman    89-123 

Liebes,  Isaac   89 

Lion    464 

Lion  Skin 455 

Liquid  Fire 42 

Lisa,  Manuel 81 

Lissa  Conies    420 

Lissa  Conies,  Two  Grades 420 

Lobos  Island  Fur  Seal  Skins, 

1917 , 221 

Lobos  Island   150-221 

Lockwood,  Lieut.  J.  B 398 

Lockwood  Island 398 

Lodewick,  John  S 278 

Logan,  R,  L 316 

Lomer,  Dodel  &  Co 347 

London  Center  of  Fur  Trade 

385-560-561 
London,  Fur  Exports  January- 
August,  1917 389 

London,  Market  for  the  Uni- 
verse      385 

London  Public  Fur  Sales 

385-386-562-563 
London  Sales,  Basis  of  Values.  386 
London,  Sales  of  Raw  Furs, 

1917   389 

London  Seal  Dye 293 

Long  Night 397 

Lord,  John  C 301 

Louis    Philippe    417 

Louisiana    20 

Louisiana   Fur-Bearers, 80 


Louisiana  Muskrat 00 

Louisiana  Purchase 20 

Loupcervier 243 

Louveiers    417 

Love  of  the  Beautiful 531 

Lowerre,  Thomas  H 327 

Lowerre  &  Company   327 

Lubbe,  J 100 

Luck   478 

Lynx    242-520-539 

Lynx  and  Rabbit   546-547 

Lynx,  European   416 

Lyon 351-419-456 

MacDougal,  Duncan  34 

MacKay,   Alexander    34 

MacKenzie,  Donald 34 

McKibbin,  Driscoll  &  Dorsey.     96 

McLeod,  Alexander  N 234 

McMillan,  James    98 

McTavish,  Simon 234 

Mackary  Fair   442 

Mackinaw    27 

Mackinaw   Co 28-33-34 

Macnaughtan,  William 301 

Madeline  Island   30 

Majot,  P.  A 329 

Man  and  Wolf  at  War 454 

Man  a  Nocturnal  Animal 524 

Man    Omnivorous    501 

Man,  Self-Made  Monkey 440 

Manes  and  Tails,  Horse 499-500 

Manhattan  Island 18 

Manne,   Sigmund    512 

Manne,  Solomon  J 512-513 

Mantlings,  Heraldy 463 

Manufacturers'    Market 46 

Manufacturers,  Number  of....     45 

Manufacturing  Furriers 308 

Manufacturing  Furriers'  Asso- 
ciation     375 

Marks,  For  Identification..  .472-473 

Marmot    412-435 

Marsh  Hawk  533 

Marsh  Marten  48 


CONTENTS 


588 


Marsh  Wren    533 

Marshall,  N.  D 295 

Marten    241-416-531 

Martin  Company,  Henry 344 

Martin,   Henry    344 

Massafuero    Island    148 

Materia  Medica 556 

Mats    449-457 

Mau,  Theodore  C 75 

Mautner,  R 282 

Mautner,  Samuel   283 

Mautner  &  Brother,  H 283 

Mawson,  Edward  S 339 

Men  and  Fur-Bearers  Akin 

526-529 
Men  Delight  in  Decorations.  .79-80 
Men   Named   After  Animals..   529 

Merchant  Appraisers 171 

Merchants  of  London 385 

Merluschka 447 

Methods 67 

Mexico    230-253 

Michaelmas  Fair 445 

Michilimackinac    27 

Military 447 

Miller,  Joseph 81 

Miller,  Senator  John  F 121-131 

Mills,  Darius  0 123 

Milwaukee    105 

Mink,   190-539 

Mink  Fur,  When  Best 192 

Mink  Sets   46 

Mink  Skins  Lengthened 193 

Mink  Tails   191 

Minneapolis 98 

Mischo,  Herman 312 

Mischo,  Hugo  J 312-314 

Mischo  &  Co.,  Inc.,  H.  J 313 

Mischo  &  Hill 313 

Mischo  &  Miiller  313 

Misnamed 474-476 

Misnamed  Furs  Inferior 474 

Misnaming  Unlawful    475 

Missouri  Fur  Company 39-81 

Mole 388-422-504-545 


Mole  Eyes 545 

Mole   Dwelling   388 

Mole,  Scotch   389 

Mole   Skins,  Sale  N.  Y.,   Oct. 

1917   389 

Mongolian   Lambs    423-448 

Monjo,  Ferdinand  N 283 

Monjo,  Nicolas  F. ..  263-271-294-302 

Monkey    438 

Monkey  Furless   438 

Monkey,    Evolution    Theory..   438 
Monkey  Skin,  Collection  1850- 

1900   440 

Monkey  Skin,  imitated 457 

Monkey  Skin,  Original  Apparel.  438 

Monks  of  St.  Mackary 442 

Monopoly   21-62-66 

Montevideo    150 

Montreal    72-233-234-256-328 

Moose  as  Food 507 

Moose   Head    458 

Moose,  Sacrificial  Animal .. 494-495 

Moscoff,  Joseph   334 

Most  Prolific   24 

Moth   Protection  in  China 428 

Moth  Remedies 509 

Moths    508-509 

Motion 521-523-532-533 

Moufflon  Lambs   423-448 

Mound  Builders    169 

Mounted  Heads 372 

Mourning  Fur  447 

Muff  Bed   500-501 

Mule    458-504 

Miiller,    Charles    313 

Mummies  of  Wolves    493 

Murashkino 447 

Musk  Ox    70-248-398 

Musk 207 

Muskrat 

204-346-400-517-530-543-557 

Muskrat  as  Food 340-508 

Muskrat,    Collection    for    Cen- 
tury     207 

Muskrat,  Color  of  Fur 206-536 


584 


CONTENTS 


Muskrat,  Exceptional  Utility  of  206 

\  Muskrat   House 530-531-543-549 

,Muskrat,  Why  so  Named 207 

Muskrat  Fur  Durable 206 

Muskrat  Skins,  Grading 206-207 

, Muskrat  Skins,  Imitate  Mole..  207 
Muskrat  Skins,  Spring  Caught 

Best    207 

^Musquash    205 

^Mutual    Protective    Fur    Mfrs. 

Association  334 

Names  of  Fur-Bearers 218 

,  Names  of  Men 525 

Napoleon  1 461 

Napoleon  III 417 

.Natives   of  Alaska 148-528 

Natural,  Furs  So  Used 474 

Natural  Hunters  and  Trappers  538 

Nature  Notes 514 

Near  Seal 153-155-186 

.Nelson  River  257 

Nesbit,  A.  &  W 303 

Newfoundland  260-263-265 

New  France 77 

Newland,  Henry  A 73 

,New  London   69 

New   Orleans    60-76 

New  Year  Fair,  Leipzig 445 

.New  York  City 19-44 

New  York  City,  Present  Trade     46 

^N.ew  York  Fur  Auction 350 

New  York  Fur  Auction  Sales 

Corporation  57-114 

New  Zealand   395 

New  Zealand  Rabbits   395-498 

Nieuw  Amsterdam 18 

,Nijni  Novgorod 442 

.Nobles  and  Judges 462 

.Norse  Navigators 12 

North    American    Commercial 

Co 89-122-123-132 

Northlands    397 

Northwest   Company   35-38-234-235 

North  Western  Fur  Co 101 

Norton,  Edward  E 102 


Norton,  Jacob  1Q2 

Noses     514-518-526 

Nutria    285-381-498 

Nutria,  in  Hat  Making 382 

Nutria  Skins,   Plucking 364 

Oberleder,  Morris  H 327 

Oberleder,   William 327 

Oberndorfer,  Chemidlin  Co 294 

Odor,  Human  Hands 515 

Offspring    555 

Oil  Barrels  503 

Old  Guard,  N.  Y.  C 453 

Oldest  American  Fur  Market.     44 

One  Dollar  Per  Week 421 

Open  and  Cased 471 

Opossum,  American 

210-506-518-526-546-554 

Opossum,  Australian   393-394 

Opossum  Feigns  Dead 522-546 

Opossum,   Chinese   Smoked...  212 
Opossum  Skins,  Australian  at 

London    394 

Opossum  Speculation   276 

Opossum  Tail  546 

Oregon 38-81-235-297 

Original  Fur  Traders 40 

Ostrich  Plumes 80 

Osann,  Frederick  180 

Otter,  Canadian 241 

Otter,  Chief  Source  of  Supply  240 

Otter,    Land 240-384-434-539-554 

Otter,  Sea 188 

Otter  Skins,  Plucking   364 

Otter,  South   American 383 

Otto,  Richard  S 50 

Ox 488-504 

Pacific   Fur   Co 34-39-79-80-82 

Packer,  Jr.,  W.  S 115 

Paco 378-383 

Paddock,  J.  S 343 

Pahmi   431 

Pahmi  Fur,  Uses  of  432 

Palestine    504 

Pangman,  Peter   234 

Panther    511 


CONTENTS 


5(85 


Parchment    503 

Pardine  Lynx  409 

Paris    417-419 

Paris  Models  373 

Parisian  Styles   418 

Parkie   467 

Past  and  Present 157 

Patagonian  Kitt  Fox 384 

Patriotic 54 

Paulson,  Charles  H 343 

Paulson  Brothers 343 

Pawnbroker  in  China  428 

Paws  and  Claws 489 

Pearls  Before  Swine  524 

Peculiar   Assorting    277-278 

Pekan    244-539 

Pelagic  Fur  Seals   147 

Pelagic   Sealing    292 

Pelt  Dimensions 268 

Peltries  Rather  Odorous 354 

Pembina  26 

Pemmican  507 

Pence,  H.  L 304 

Pentacost,  A.  A 109 

Perfume    433-436 

Perpetuation    524 

Perrot,    Nicholas    25 

Persian  Lamb   360-423-446-447 

Persianer   423-446 

Pfaelzer,  Morris  F 272 

Philadelphia   338 

Piano  Hammers  503 

Picking   364-365 

Piehler,  Otto  J 104 

Pilgrim  Fathers   17 

Pinnipedian  154 

Pladwell,   Joseph    345 

Pladwell's  Sons,  J 345 

Platypus     390-565 

Platypus  Fur 391 

Plodders  Alone  Succeed  159 

Plucking  and   Unhairing. ,  .362-366 

Pointing 222 

Poison    511 

Polar  Bear  and  Seal 535 


Polar  Bear  Bed  Robes 488 

Polar  Bears 

70-126-397-452-506-526-534-539 

Polar  Foxes 397 

Polecat    411-416-548 

Polish  White  Conies 420-490 

Political  Pother 144 

Pond,  Peter  233 

Pony   Skin    406 

Pony  Skin,  Advances  in  Value  407 
Pony  Skin,  Used  Natural  and 

Dyed  407 

Porter,  Charles  S 59-112-281 

Portugal  409 

Power,  T.  C 220 

Praetorius,  Carl   286 

Prairie  Dog,  Habitat  and  Util- 
ity   459-511 

Prairie  Wolf   455 

Prentice,  E.  P 115 

Prentice,  J.   H 115 

Prentice,  W.  S 115 

Pretzman,  William  W 340 

Pribilov    119 

Pribilov  Island  Catch  1917 128 

Pribilov  Islands   126 

Price,  George  A 105 

Price  List,  New  York  1867 159 

Price  List,  St  Louis  1879 86 

Prices   Paid   in   1866 277 

Price  Lists   80 

Prices   481 

Prices,   Raw  Furs  1875-6 161 

Prices,  Raw  Furs  End  1916 160 

Prime  and  Unprime 227 

Prince    Edward    Island 267 

Prince  Rupert  255 

Pro  Pelle  Cutem 256 

Protective  Coloring 426-531 

Protective  Laws   166-345 

Protective  Nature 163-536-537 

Prouty,  Almond  E 284 

Prouty,   J.   L 284 

Prouty,   William   L.    284 


686 


CONTENTS 


Ptarmigan    523-535 

Public  Sales  in  Leipzig 305-411 

Puma 511-524 

Pure    Fur    97 

Puzzle    46« 

Quail   522-533 

Quebec   76-233-235-238 

Queen  Elizabeth 385 

Queen   Hen    501 

Queen  of  Spain  Favors  Beaver  461 

Queen  Victoria 387 

Queen      Wilhelmina,      Wears 

Marten   461 

Queues  500 

Rabbit  and  Lynx  524 

Rabbit  Flesh,  Fresh  and  Canned    506 

Rabbit  Foot 557 

Rabbit  Skins,  Weight  per  dozen  395 

Rabbits    526-546-547 

Rabbits,  Australian   394 

Rabbits,  New  Zealand 395 

Raccoon. . .   202-263-271-506-542-559 

Raccoon  Coats   203 

Raccoon   Diet    203 

Raccoon  Durable   203 

Raccoon     Dyed     Resembles 

Skunk   203 

Raccoon  First  Dyed  Black. . . .  411 
Raccoon  Plucked,  Beaver  Im- 
itation      203 

Raccoon  Skin  Price  of  Moon- 
shine    491 

Raccoon   Skins,  Value 203 

Raddison,    Pierre    E 231 

Ram    504 

Ram  Skins   464 

Rasse    436 

Rau,  Charles    318 

Rau,   Erie    346 

Rauh,  Rudolph   3 

Raw  Fur  Dealers  Association 

State   of   N.   Y 110 

Raw  Fur  Merchants  Associa- 
tion City  of  N.  Y 51 

Raw  Fur  Trade 42 


Red  Cross  Subscriptions S9 

Red    River   Valley 94 

Reel,  Herman   106 

Reindeer. , ,  396-397-408-434-459-467 

Reindeer  Apparel 408 

Reindeer  Coat  Linings 408 

Reindeer     Skin     for     Summer 

Wear     468 

Reindeer  Hair 499 

Reineman,  Albert 328 

Reineman,  Gimble  &  Co 328 

Reineman,    Simon    328 

Revillon,  Albert   329 

Revillon,    Anatole    329 

Revillon    Brothers    235-236 

Revillon    Brothers'   Charter...  236 

Revillon  Freres  328-330 

Revillon    Freres   Trading   Co., 

Ltd 23ft 

Revillon,    Jean    Albert 329 

Revillon,   Leon    329 

Richter,  Paul 347 

Ringtail   Cat   214 

Ringtails     214-431 

Robben  Island 151 

Robes  and  Rugs 449 

Robes  and  Rugs,  Skins  Used..  449 

Rockwell,    A.    P 330 

Rockwell  Fur  Co 330 

Rocky  Mountain  Fur  Co 82 

Rocky  Mountain  Goats  459 

Rogers,  Louis  Henry 101 

Rollins,  F.  H 75 

Roman  Soldiers   453 

Rookeries  135-148-251 

Roos,  Leonhard   84 

Rose,  Isidor   94-95 

Royal   Furs    460 

Royal  Sable  Robes 401 

Royal  Greenland  Company...  397 

Russak,    Benjamin 317 

Russia    399-424-429 

Russia    Important    Consuming 

Country  400 


CONTENTS 


587 


Russia  Suited  to  Wild  Animal 
Life   400 

Russian-America 

118-149-258-259-291-407 
Russian-America,  Rental   Paid 

in  Otter  Skins 259 

Russian  American  Fur  Co. 291-427 
Russian  American  Trading  Co.  118 

Russian    Conies    420 

Russian    Crown    402 

Russian  Crown  Sables 400-402 

Russian    Fur-Bearers    400 

Russian  Hares 498-499 

Russian  Pony 406-407 

Russian  Reservations   408 

Russian  Sable  Fully  Fur  Clad.  526 

Russian  Sable  Fur  400 

Russian  Sable  Fur,  Exception- 
al   Feature    401 

Russian   Sable    Hunters 401-402 

Russian  Sable  Lining 401 

Russian  Sable  Sets 46 

Russian  Sable  Skins,  Values..  402 

Russian  Sables 400-402 

Russian   Trade    407 

Ruszits,  John   89-320 

Sabel,  Alvin  J.   ..., 108 

Sabel,   Joseph    108 

Sable  Fur  Ranks  With  Gems.  401 

Sable,  Kamtschatka 434 

Sable,  Russian    400-402-526 

Sable  Skins,  Finest 400 

Sacerdotal  Furs   464 

Sachs,  Edward 285 

Sachs,   Louis    284 

Sachs,  Samuel  284 

Sacred  Animals 493-495 

Saghalien    151 

Saint  Johns,  Newfoundland  260-263 

Saint  Joseph,   Missouri 342 

Saint  Louis   76-87-450 

Saint     Louis,      Collection     of 

Skins  1790 83 

Saint     Louis,     Collection     of 
Skins  1810-1850 83 


Saint  Mackary's  Day  442 

Saint  Paul   26-92-305 

Saint  Paul   Prices  1856 94 

Saint  Paul,  Shipments  of  Pel- 
tries   1856    94 

Samson  Great  Fox  Trapper...  504 

San  Angelo    220 

San   Francisco    88-427 

Sandwich    Islands    148 

Sawdust    356 

Scaly  Tails  522 

Scape  Goat 465 

Scent  and  Sight 512-551 

Scheller,  Baruch  M 513 

Scherer,  Charles 343 

Scherer,  George   343 

SchiflF,  Abraham   367 

Schiff  Brothers  367 

Schiff,  Theodore  367 

Schlosberg,  L.  H 347 

Schmidt,  Carl  E 73 

Schmidt,  Edward  73 

Schmidt,  Traugott  73 

Schoen,   Isaac  A 85 

Schott,  Albert   85 

Schoverling,  Rudolph  304 

Schrieber,  Milton  288 

Schwersenski,  Simon 330 

Scotch  Hares   415-498-499 

Scotch   Lambs   448-490 

Scotch  Wolves   454 

Sea  Bear  434 

Sea  Otter 

33-88-118-149-188-189-190-432-434 

Sea  Otter  Fur 189 

Sea  Otter  Fur,  Royal  in  Rus- 
sia      190 

Sea  Otter,  Popular  in  China  .  189 

Seal  Caps  and  Hats   174-313 

Seal  Census   129 

Seal   Color   359 

Seal  Conies    419 

Seal  Killing   141 

Seal  Leases 130 

Seal  Imitations  364 


588 


CONTENTS 


Seal  Skin  Sale  in  St.  Louis 125 

Seal  Skins  Dyed  in  America 

115-116-361 
Seal  Skins  Dyed  in  London  117-360 

Seal  Skins  Dyed  in  Paris 361 

Seal  Skins,  Plucking 365 

Sealing   Steamers  and   Sailing 

Vessels    264 

Seals,  Hair  262 

Seals  of  New  York  City 47-50 

Seals,  Small  Catch 70 

Seattle  Fur  Sales  Agency 349 

Seattle,    Market    for    Alaskan 

Furs 349 

Second-Hand  Emporiums 468 

Serpent    546 

Sewing  Machine 179 

Shakos   454 

Shaving    ^ 364 

Shayne,   Christopher  C 330 

Sheared  Skins   365-420 

Shearing    364 

Shedding   537 

Sheep    504 

Sheep  Skin  Lined  Coats 400 

Shedders    352 

Sheep  Skins 430-448-503 

Shethar,  Samuel  220 

Shetland  Islands 150 

Shetland  Seals 71-150 

Shocks   421 

Shoyer,   Gabriel    339 

Siberia    400-404-405-407-413-426-433 

Siberian  Marten  424 

Siberian  Sable 424 

Siberian  Squirrels 444-461 

Simmons,  Jacob  312 

Simmons  &  Mischo   312 

Singed , 356 

Skin  of  Burnt  Offering 465 

Skins  and  Furs 354 

Skunk    198-508-537-538 

Skunk,  Collection  1856-1912 

200-202 
Skunk,  Color  Variation 199 


Skunk  Dens  538 

Skunk,    Deodorizing    198 

Skunk    Diet    198-547 

Skunk,  Early  and  Late  Caught  228 

Skunk  Grades  228 

Skunk,  First  Sold  in  London..  201' 
Skunk,     Offering    in    London 

1870-1889 201 

Skunk,    Super    Natural    Black 

Fur    200 

Skunk  Oil   502-558 

Skunk,    Prices    London    1885- 

1912   201 

Skunk,  Prices  New  York  1867.  201 

Skunk  Sheds  Early ." 228 

Sleeping  Bags   469 

Sloman,  Mark  73 

Sloss,  Louis   131 

Smith,  J.  A 131 

Snobs    475 

Snow    543-544 

Snow  Hares 433 

Snow    Leopard 426 

Snowflake  Hares   415 

Sobel    400 

Solomon    504 

South  America   378-448 

South    American    Fur-Bearers  378 

South   Georgia   Islands 148 

South  Pole  263 

South  Shetland  Islands 150 

Southward    230 

South  West  Company 34-387 

Spain    409-420-456-536 

Spain,  Derivation  of  Name  420-522 

Spaniga    420 

Spanish    Missionaries 88 

Speculation  63 

Speer,  Edward  M 28« 

Spider   540-542 

Spider  Trap    540-542 

Spirer,  Julius  334 

Spitzbergen  397 

Spotted  Ringtails 440 

Sport    559 


CONTENTS 


589 


Squirrel  Fur,  Natural  and  Dyed  406 
Squirrel  Linings,  Fur  of  Heads 

Only    406 

Squirrel  Skins,  Beisky 405 

Squirrel  Skins,  China  and  Eu- 
rope Best  Markets 405 

Squirrel   Skins,    Finest 433 

Squirrel     Skins,     Grades     and 

Colors   404-405 

Squirrel  Skins,  Kasan 405 

Squirrel  Skins,  Lensky 405 

Squirrel  Skins,  Number  of 405 

Squirrel  Skins,  Obskoy 405 

Squirrel  Skins,  Saccamina 404 

Squirrel  Skins,  Yakutsky 404 

Squirrel  Skins,  Yeniseisky 405 

Squirrel  Tails 487-492-554 

Squirrels  404-531 

Squirrels  Migrate 405 

Squirrels,  Siberian  437 

Squirrels,  Trapped  and  Shot. .  405 

Stag  527-556 

Stambach,  J.  A 339 

Steiner,  Albert  J 178 

Steiner,  David 176 

Steiner,  Joseph   176 

Steiner,  Julius   178 

Steiner,  Simon  J 178 

Steiner,  Sol 178 

Stevens  &  Adams 345 

Stoat 402 

Stone  Marten 409 

Stone  Marten  Sets 46 

Sublette,  William  82 

Struck  &  Bossak,  Inc 337 

Stern,  Gage  &  Co 328 

Sturgeon  Lake 258 

Superstition    495 

Supplies   229 

Supply  and  Demand 268 

Swamp   Rabbit    508 

Swan's  Down : 172-422 

Swift  Fox  254 

Syrian  Bear   453 

Tabernacle,  Skins  Used 464-465 


Tables — Collections  at  London 

1813-1912 564-566 

Tacoma 108 

Tail  Language 554 

Tailless  Cat   432 

Tails    485-486-526-546-553 

Tails,  Manufactured 489 

Tariff    171 

Tasche 92 

Taxidermy 370 

Taxidermy,  Mounts  for  Offices 

371-372 
Taxidermy,    Museum    Natural 

History,  N.  Y 372 

Taxidermy,  Sportsmen's  Spec- 
imens   371 

Taxidermists'   Skill    372 

Taxidermists  vs.  Ancient  Em- 

balmers    372 

Taylor,  Robert  Quail  340 

Teeth    502-524-529-530 

Temperature 525 

Terrapin   552-553 

Tevis,   Lloyd    123 

Tevis,  William  S 123 

Theories   Not  Always  Logical  535 

Thibet  Goat  Skins  423 

Thorer  Company,  Inc 285 

Thorer,   Theodor    285 

Thorer  &  Praetorius    286 

Three  Golden  Spheres 470 

Tiger    449 

Tiger    429-435-557 

Tiger  Claws  430 

Timber  485 

Time's  Changes 373-375 

Tootle,    Milton    342 

Total   Fur   Seal   Slaughter 146 

Totem  Poles    528 

Toyland    490 

Tracks    335 

Trade  Dollar  490 

Trading  at  Irbit  Fair 444 

Trading  Organization 78 

Trading   Posts 20-21-36-121 


590 


CONTENTS 


Trading  Posts   Hudson's   Bay 

Co 256 

Transatlantic  Fur  Co 347 

Transmigration    493-527 

Transportation  167-170 

Trapper,  The    162-538-552 

Trappers  Admire  Finery 77-79 

Trappers'  Boats   195 

Trapper's    Lot 163 

Trapping  in  United  States 239 

Trapping  Season 163 

Trappists  419 

Traps    164 

Treadwell,  George  C.  ..115-116-334 

Treadwell  &  Co 320 

Tree  Toad 543 

Tree    Climbers 524 

Treading    356 

Trench  Coats 403 

Trench  Rats 511 

Tribute     434 

Trophies 485 

Trout  and  Salmon  Flies  486 

Ukranian  Lamb  Skins 448 

Ullmann,    Joseph 305 

Uncles,  Aunts  and  Cousins. . .  440 

Unhairing     152-363-365 

Uncrowned    Amerka,Tiis 460-461 

Unhairing  Machine   365 

Unprime   Skins   227 

United   States    429 

Vancouver  Island 151 

Van  Kleeck,  Albert 341 

Van  Kleeck,  Edward 341 

Van  Kleek,  Frank 341 

Van  Kleeck,  Tunis 341 

Van  Winkle  &  White 107 

Vellum   503 

Venison    507 

Verschoore,  Henri  L 513 

Vespucius  Americus   17 

Victoria    291 

Vicuna    383 

Vital  Heat 521 

Voyageurs  77 


Waldbott,  E.  S 208 

Walrus  Hide 467 

Wallaby 392 

Wapiti 458 

War    36-68-232-233-235-477 

War    Effects 477-478-480 

War,  Effects  of  1914. .  .114-478-480 

Warmest   Coat    537 

Wasserman,  August 131 

Water-Hairs   453 

430-460-504-520-534-535-510-539 
Weasel...    429-430-460-504-520- 

534-535-510-539 

Weather    Prophets 542-545 

Weer,  J.  H lOtt 

Weil,  Dr.  Isaac 306 

Weil,  Julius    306 

Weil,  Leopold  306 

Weinberg,  Philip   332 

Wendel,  John  D 26 

Wendel,  John  G 26-316 

Wespy,  Carl  281 

West  Coast  Grocery  Company  108 

Whalers  397 

Whiskey,   1810-1843    94 

Whiskey,  Price  of  1763  77 

Whitcomb,  M.  Prentice 334 

White   Bison    221 

White   Coats    263 

White   Hares    396-397 

White,  John  108 

White,  Lewis  J 107 

White  Raccoon,  photo 256 

White  Wolves  396 

Widdall,   Captain    148 

Wight,  Almon   104 

Wight,  E.  L.  C 104 

Wight,    Freeman    101 

Wight,  Joseph  104 

Wight,   Lewis    104 

Wigs  500 

Wilbur,  N.  B 308 

Wild   Cat    211-384-511 

Wild  Cat,  Good  Lynx  Imitation 

212-410 


CONTENTS 


591 


Wild  Dogs 392-523 

Willard,    Hiram    344 

Willard,  Son  &  Co.,  H 344 

Willets,   Samuel    131 

Williams,  A.  C 70 

Williams,   Charles  A 71-131 

Williams,  Denison  115 

Williams,  J.  D.,  Inc 367 

Williams,  J.  Denison 367 

Williams,  Roger  70 

Wind  and  Moisture  Proof 

451-458-459 

Wolf  Bounties 416 

Wolf  Fur r 454 

Wolf  Fur,  Uses  of 403-455 

Wolf  Heads  as  Tribute 454 

Wolf  Ribs 507 

Wolf  Skin  Robes  and  Rugs...  455 
Wolves,    Efforts    to    Extermi- 
nate     454-511 


Wolves  in  France 417 

Wolves,    Russian    Method    of 

Trapping   403 

Wolves,  Savage  and  Destruc- 
tive     , 403 

Wolverine    247-539 

Wolverine  Claws    248 

Wonderful  Mystery  137 

Woodchuck    510-537-543-544 

Woodchuck  as   Cash    492 

Woodchuck  as  Food 506 

Woodruff,   F.   M 349 

Wool,   Seal    264-434 

Wombat    393-505 

Wolfsohn,  Max 286 

Wulzo,  Eugen   281 

York  Factory 257-258 

Yuba,   Buena   88 

Zechiel,  Louis  331 


/^^=:=»^ 


X 


RETURN  TO  the  circulation  desk  of  any 
,.  -^University  of  California  Library 
or  to  the 

NORTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 

BIdg.  400,  Richmond  Field  Station 

University  of  California 

Richmond,  CA  94804-4698 


^ 


ALL  BOOKS  MAY  BE  RECALLED  AFTER  7  DAYS 
2-month  loans  may  be  renewed  by  calling 

(510)642-6753 
1-year  loans  may  be  recharged  by  bringing  books 

toNRLF 
Renewals    and   recharges    may    be    made    4    days 

prior  to  due  date 


DUE  AS  STAMPED  BELOW 

"JUL20'iy95 


?a^  r^si 


.■    / 


U.C.  BERKELEY  LIBRARIES 


'pP*'- 


l!!lliiiii:i::ll,iiiMlilliil|| 
CD0b74DSfib 


<<<^ 


LIBRARY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

LOAN  DEPT. 

THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  BEFORE  CLOSING  TIME 
ON  LAST  DATE  STAMPED  BELOW 


UiRARY  USE 


AUG  U  mt 


i^C2)  LD 


flUG24'64-2p|« 


^^^/^ 


Hi'    \J 


ARY 


I 


